Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology

Introduction Psychology evolved from ancient civilization of Greeks, Chinese, Egyptians, Indians, and Arabs, among other ancient great thinkers who made significant contribution to the development of psychology over the centuries. Psychology developed from various fields of knowledge such as philosophy, sociology, biology, physiology, anthropology, and other related disciplines because it interfaces widely with diverse disciplines.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Until 1879, psychology was a dependent discipline, which formed part of ancient philosophy and it evolved to due to emergence of empirical scientific skills that enhanced research and validation of psychological theories. Since psychology is the study of mental processes and human behaviors, it was challenging and complex for the ancient psych ologists to design experiments that would empirically demonstrate psychology of human beings. Hunt admits that â€Å"studying the behaviors of humans is more complicated because of the influence of extraneous variables that are difficult to control. Oftentimes it requires researchers to make inferences or interpretation because the data is comparatively less clear-cut† (2006, p.12). The emergence of scientific skills and their application in various fields of knowledge led to the development of psychology as an independent field from philosophy. To explore history of psychology, this essay examines personalistic and naturalistic contributions of different theorists who represent various phases of psychological history such as philosophical antecedent, early physiological experiment, applied behaviorism, psychoanalytic movement, and contemporary movement, and ultimately evaluate personalistic and naturalistic views of psychological history. Philosophical Antecedents to Psychol ogy Before the development of empirical scientific skills in the late 19th century, psychology was an integral part of philosophy since great philosophers used rational introspective of human behaviors to understand the nature of human beings. Since philosophical ideologies questioned human mind and behavior, it provided a basis for the psychologists and physiologists to elucidate human mind and behavior according to their respective perceptions. Ancient great thinkers employed philosophy and physiology in the study of human mind and behaviors.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More According to Griffiths, philosophy entails introspection of mental processes because â€Å"through a process of self-questioning and asking others questions; philosophers have attempted to unravel how we think, how we learn, how we gain knowledge and how we use our experiences† (2007, p.5). On the other h and, physiology involved the study of human body to unravel complex processes of the body relative to health. Then, the relationship between the mind and the body perplexed ancient philosophers and this led to the development of psychology as an independent field of knowledge that considers both philosophy of the mind and physiology of the body. Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.), an ancient philosopher, examined human life and argued that the mind and the body have intricate connection because the mind has the ability to control the body. Plato (427-347B.C.) argued that the mind and the body are two distinct components of a person that interact effectively in bringing about human behavior. Plato believed that human beings gain knowledge through introspection rather than through observation; hence, he formed the foundation for rationalism. Aristotle (348-322 B.C.), a student of Plato contested that the mind and the body are not different entities of a human being, as he believed that physio logical study of the body through observation is critical in understanding how the mind functions, thus his argument formed foundation for empiricism. Based on philosophical work of Plato and Aristotle, rationalism and empiricism are respective two approaches of psychology that emerged. Nadel (2008) argues that â€Å"a rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through logical analysis while an empiricist believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence, that is, we obtain evidence through experience and observation† (p.54). Thus, rationalism and empiricism are significant approaches of modern psychology that originated from philosophical ideologies of human nature.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More During 16th and 17th, rationalism and empiricism became prominent when more phil osophers formulated psychological theories that explain human mind and behavior. Rene Descartes (1596-1550), a great thinker of this period supported rationalism arguing that the mind and the body are distinct components of a human being that mutually interact and determine the behavior of a person. He believed that human beings have cognitive abilities that differentiate them from animals. On the other hand, John Locke believed that the mind and the body are one and that they interact equally. He perceived that mutual coexistence of the body and mind is imperative for the development of human behavior because the body can sense various stimuli from the environment and the mind too process sensed information for the body to respond appropriately to diverse environmental conditions. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), agreed with both rationalism and empiricism views arguing that they are essential in psychological study of mind and human behaviors. The philosophical issue of the mind and the body complicated philosophical studies of the nature of human beings that resulted in formulation of diverse theories. Hunt argues that â€Å"the issues confronted by philosophers, physicians, and psychologists are so intertwined that when psychology was starting out as a field of study in the late 1800s, it was viewed by some as a branch of philosophy† (2006, p.18). Ultimately, psychology emerged and became independent from philosophy as the science of mind and human behavior. During the earliest period of psychological evolution, philosophers differed in defining the relationship between the mind and the body. Rationalists believed that the mind and the body are separate and distinct components of a human being and thus, psychological study should have its basis through introspection of the mind by rational analysis. However, Rene Desecrates resolved the philosophical problem of the mind and body by arguing that they are distinct components of a person, hence rationalism f ormed the basis of ancient psychology and is equally central to modern psychology (Watson, 2008, p.9).Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Descartes’ beliefs did set the stage for the development of empirical psychology. Since the problem of mind and body dominated the minds of many great philosophers, naturalistic approach best explains contribution of Rene Desecrates in the ancient period. Philosophers like Hippocrates, Aristotle, Plato, John Locke, and Immanuel Kant contributed to the emergence and evolution of psychology during the ancient times. The philosophers discovered that the mind and the body are entities that interact in the body, which resulted into rationalism and empiricism study of psychology. Early Physiological and Experimental psychology Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), a German philosopher and psychologist, came up with early physiological and experimental psychology that has become the basis of modern empirical study of psychology. He dedicated his studies to carrying out physiological experiments for he intended to unravel the mystery behind structure of the mind. Wundt believed in the structura l perception of human mind. Hence his studies focused on structuralism theory in contrast with functionalism theory that elucidates human mind from functional point of view. According to Marr, â€Å"Structuralism seeks to understand the structure and configuration of elements of the mind and its perceptions by analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components† (2008, p.56). Wundt assumed that physiological and psychological processes of a person interact in the body resulting into development of behavior. He became the father of experimental psychology since he established scientific laboratory where he conducted psychological experiments. He further designed various models of experiments so that he would detect how human senses coordinate with mental structures bringing out certain responses. Wilhelm Wundt revolutionized psychology because he was the first to apply empirical scientific skills in the study of psychology. Due to his experiments, psychology gained e nough footing and became independent field of knowledge with significant empirical evidences to support its theories that were earlier incredible. Wilhelm Wundt believed that behavior of a person depends on the interaction of physiological and psychological elements. â€Å"Physiological psychology was concerned with the process of excitations from stimulation of the sense organs, through sensory neurons to the lower and higher brain centers, and from these centers to the muscles† (Nadel, 2008, p.58). The physiological psychology provided an empirical perspective of studying psychology since earlier studies viewed psychology from philosophical point of view and applied philosophical ideologies and theories in the understanding of human mind and behaviors. According to the physiological and experimental psychology, Wilhelm Wundt assumed that physiological processes of senses could give significant information concerning the functioning of the brain. He designed novel experiment s in the laboratory, which focused in establishing the relationship between the mind and the body through physiological actions of nerves. The experiment gave robust findings that led to the development of structural theory of psychology that posits that mental and physiological structures interact effectively in the body and are responsible for the development of human behavior. Wilhelm Wundt employed introspection as one of the method of analyzing the relationship between the mind and the body through physiological mechanism of the body. â€Å"Although Wundt’s method of introspection did not remain a fundamental tool of psychological experimentation past the early 1920s, his greatest contribution was to show that psychology could be a valid experimental science,† (Wilson Keil, 2007, p.60). Thus, Wilhelm Wundt did not only prove that psychology is an experimental science but also did contribute to the independence of psychology in the 20th century. Based on the empir ical ideology of philosophy, Wilhelm Wundt formulated the first scientific experiment in a laboratory for he assumed that the relationship between the mind and the body lies in their interaction through physiological mechanism. He conducted experiments where he determined effects of varied stimuli on the mind and responses (Marr, 2008, p.72). His work led to the independence of psychology as science of the mind and behavior for empirical studies enhanced validation of many psychological theories that relied on philosophical ideologies. Personalistic approach concerning the history of psychology best accounts for his contribution to the evolution of psychology. He was the first psychologist to conduct laboratory experiment to test the relationship between the body and the mind by using varied environmental stimuli. His experimental efforts and findings revolutionized the study of psychology from rational perspective to empirical perspective. Physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt did prove that psychology is an experiential science that needs scientific skills to validate its theories. Due to great work of Wilhelm Wundt, psychology has become the science of mind and behavior in the modern society. Applied psychology and Behaviorism John Broadus Watson (1878-1958) was a great proponent of behavioral theory of psychology that explains human mind and behavior. Watson did study physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt and found that physiology alone could not explain the nature of human mind. He extended experimental physiology to include animal models in his experiments because he could easily manipulate their behavior as compared to human beings. Watson assumed that behavior of a person reflects psychological status in that studying human behaviors could tell a lot about their minds. Behavioral theory assumes that human behaviors are a reflection of the mental conditions and thus should form central basis of studying psycholo gy. In his experiments, Watson used animal models because he assumed that he could effectively extrapolate the results and apply them to human behaviors. â€Å"Using the conclusions drawn from animal research, Watson did much to enlighten educators about the complexities of learning, motivation, response generation, and problem-solving,† (Hart Kritsonis, 2006, p.8). Although his view of psychology differed with the introspection ideology of Wilhelm Wundt, he employed physiological experiment in determining stimuli-based behaviors of animals. The behavioral theory of psychology made significant contribution to the empirical study of psychology and led to the evolution of other fields of psychology such as behavioral psychology and social psychology, which are essential in explaining human behavior in the society. Watson disputed psychological views of structuralism and functionalism for he perceived that they lacked sufficient empirical applications and extrapolation to diver se human behaviors in the society. Many psychologists â€Å"credits Watson for having brought credence to some of the psychoanalytic concepts such as the role of early childhood experiences, trauma and relationships with significant social agents, primarily maternal figures, in the formation a child’s personality, capabilities and propensities† (Hart Kritsonis, 2006, p.9). Therefore, behaviorism has become an essential aspect of modern psychology for it has expanded empirical application and study of human mind and behaviors. After analyzing the work of physiological and experimental psychology of Wilhelm Wundt, John Watson formulated behavioral theory of psychology. He assumed that there is correlation between the mind and behaviors of individuals and thus, studying human behaviors could unravel the mystery behind the functioning of the mind. Since John Watson based his behavioral studies on earlier work of experimental psychology, naturalistic approach appropriately accounts for his contribution to the history of psychology. Behavioral theory has become very important in modern psychology, as it is applicable in the diagnosis of varied mental disorders. Psychoanalytic Movement Sigmund Freud was a great psychologist of the 20th century who came up with psychoanalytic theory to elucidate how human mind functions and how it influences human behavior. He was a neurologist and thus his knowledge concerning the functioning of the brain-inspired him to formulate psychoanalytic theory. Examining mental disorders of the children, Sigmund Freud discovered that some disorders such as necrosis and hysteria affect mental functions while organic matter in the mind remains intact. Through neurological examination, he singled the cause of hysterical disorders as repressed memories of traumatic experiences since organic matter remained intact. Sigmund Freud formulated psychotherapy procedure that helped the patients to recall traumatic experiences so that he c ould guide them in resolving psychological crises arising from repressed memories. Sigmund Freud explains that â€Å"we guided the patient’s attention directly to the traumatic scene during which the symptom had arisen, tried to find therein the psychic conflict and to free the repressed affect †¦ discovered the procedure characteristic of the psychic processes of the neuroses† (Strachey, 2007, p.7). From the experience as a neurologist, Sigmund Freud discovered that mental disorders do not require physiotherapy but psychotherapy and thus, he applied regression analysis of life experiences to awaken and resolve repressed memories of patients. Realizing that necroses relate with the sexual drives of children, Sigmund Freud formulated psychosexual theory after exploring sexual development from a psychological point of view. He argued that sexual development intricately links with the mind and determines the behavior of an individual. Freud changed the perception of sex when he proposed that sexuality forms an integral part of childhood development because sexual drives mediate between the body and the mind. He noted that sexual instincts are major driving forces in personality development. Sigmund Freud redefined the ordinary physical perspective of sexual development by incorporating the psychological aspects of psyche. In his psychoanalysis theory, Freud proposed that the psyche has three components, namely, the ego, the super-ego, and the I.D. (Strachey, 2007, p.84). Super-ego is the conscious component of the psyche that imposes and regulates cultural sexual constraints while the I.D. is the unconscious component that determines the sexual instincts of pleasure and is important in socialization. The ego is the component of the psyche that interfaces and coordinates the super-ego and the I.D. in the harmonization of the conflicting sexual instincts and cultural sexual constraints in the process of psychosexual development. Thus, Sigmund Fre ud modeled psychosexual development into five stages: â€Å"oral phase, anal phase, phallic phase, latency phase and genital phase† (Strachey, 2007, p.83) depending on the source of the sexual instinct. Contrary to the behavioral theory, Sigmund Freud came up with psychoanalytic theory, which postulates that mental disorders such as necroses and hysteria are due to repressed memories of past traumatic experiences. In addition, he formulated psychosexual theory where he explained how the three elements of psyche viz. superego, ego, and I.D. interact effectively in resolution of psychosexual crises (Wilson Keil, 2007, p.44). Since Sigmund Freud came up with the psychoanalytic theory together with his friends, personalistic and naturalistic approaches best account for his contribution to the history of psychology His psychoanalytic principles are central to modern psychotherapy Contemporary Movement Social constructivism is a contemporary school of thought in psychology whose p roponents argue that scientific and psychological ideologies are all constructs of humanity and that they did not exist in their own. The social construction theory shifted from self-psychology and incorporated the influence of social environment to the mind and subsequent development of behaviors. Kenneth Gergen is a modern proponent of construction theory who argues that science and philosophy are human constructs that cannot fully explain psychological and behavioral development in the society with many social factors that confound inquiry in psychology. â€Å"What we take to be experience of the world does not in itself dictate the terms by which the world is understood. What we take to be knowledge of the world is not a product of induction, or of the building and testing of general hypotheses† (Gergen, 2009, p.266). He criticizes empiricists for over-reliance on observation as basis of scientific knowledge for he holds that observers have bias when making their empirica l observations. Since some aspects of psychology such as emotions are very abstract for empirical analyses, empirical studies of human thoughts and behavioral are not sufficient in validation and elucidation of psychological theories. According to the social construction theory, interaction of human beings in the universe has played significant role in shaping their thoughts and behaviors. Human beings have made diverse social constructs in the society that have shaped human behaviors, emotions, and thoughts. Constructionists believe that understanding of the world, human behavior and thoughts lies in mutual interaction of people, and their systems in the society. Boghossian argues that the study of culture, personality, emotions and memories â€Å"direct our attention to the social, moral, political and economic institutions that sustain and are supported by current assumptions about human activity† (2010, p.32). In modern society, social psychology is applicable in politica l spheres, in management levels, and in various interactions of people where mobilization is necessary. Kenneth Gergen is a contemporary proponent of social construction theory that critics empirical psychology as insufficient in elucidating human behavior and mental functions. He added social aspect as a determinant of human behavior and mental functions for he believed that social forces are integral part of the psychology because they influence interaction of human beings in the society. Given that many of his contemporaries contributed to the formulation of the social construction theory, naturalistic approach appropriately explains his contribution to the history of psychology Summary Naturalistic and personalistic perspectives are two approaches that help in understanding the history and evolution of psychology. While naturalistic perspective of psychological history emphasizes collective intellectual contribution by the great thinkers, personalistic perspective of psychologic al history emphasizes on individual contribution to the growth and evolution of psychology. According to naturalistic perception, history of psychology is collection of great ideologies from many thinkers who contributed to the development and evolution of psychology during various intellectual and historical periods into the modern psychology. Personalistic approach to the study of psychological history emphasizes individual contributions and regards them as heroic intellectuals. Watson argues that â€Å"the history of what man has accomplished in this world is at bottom the history of the great men who have worked here† (2009, p.12). Personalistic theory assumes that the history of psychology is just but a history of great persons who made significant contributions, which changed the course of psychology throughout the history. Conclusion Ancient great thinkers made significant contribution to the growth and development of psychology. During the ancient times, psychology wa s part of philosophy because it lacked empirical validation of its theories. Psychology was dependent on philosophical ideologies of rationalism in the study of human thoughts and behaviors. In the late 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt came up with empirical view of psychology for he conducted first laboratory experiment to find out the relationship between the mind and the body via physiological actions of nerves. His experiments revolutionized psychology to become an independent field of knowledge, which could validate its theories using scientific principles of research. Thus, empirical psychology formed the foundation for the emergence of behavioral theory, psychoanalytic theory and contemporary social construction theory, which are integral part of modern psychology. References Boghossian, P. (2010). Contemporary Construction Theory. The Institute of  Psychological studies, 1-45. Gergen, K. (2009). The Social Constructionist Movement in Modern Psychology.  American Psychologist, 40(3), 266-281. Griffiths, P. (2007). Evolutionary Psychology: History, and Current Status.  The Philosophy of Science, 1-14. Hart, K., Kritsonis, W. (2006). A Critical Analysis of John B. Watson’s Original Writing: Behaviorisms as a Behaviorist Views It. National Forum of Applied Educational Research Journal, 20(3), 1-21. Hunt, M. (2006). The History of Psychology. London: Prentice Hall. Marr, D. (2008). Origin and History of Psychology. New York: Cambridge Press. Nadel, L. (2008). Introduction to Cognitive Psychology. London: Nature Publishing Group. Strachey, J. (2007). The History of Psychoanalytic Movement: Sigmund Freud.  Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, 24(7), 1-134. Watson, R. (2008). Introduction to Psychology’s History. The American Psychological  Association, 1-44. Wilson, R., Keil, F. (2007). Evolution of Psychology: Ancient and Modern Perception.  The Journal of Psychology, 45(9), 23-67. This essay on Contribution ancient great thinkers to the growth and development of psychology was written and submitted by user Conor Richmond to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Facts and Key Figures in the Battle of Gettysburg

Facts and Key Figures in the Battle of Gettysburg Dates July 1-3, 1863 Location Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Key Individuals Involved in the Battle of Gettysburg Union: Major General George G. Meade Confederate: General Robert E. Lee Outcome Union Victory, with 51,000 casualties total. Of those, 28,000 were Confederate soldiers. Overview of the Battle General Robert E. Lee had succeeded at the Battle of Chancellorsville and decided to push north in his Gettysburg campaign. He met the Union forces in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Lee concentrated his armys full strength against Major General George G. Meade’s Army of the Potomac at the Gettysburg crossroads. On July 1, Lees forces moved on the Union forces in the town from both the west and the north. This drove the Union defenders through the streets of the city to Cemetery Hill. During the night, reinforcements arrived for both sides of the battle. On July 2, struck the Lee attempted to surround the Union army. First, he sent Longstreets and Hills divisions to strike the Union left flank at the Peach Orchard, Devil’s Den, the  Wheatfield, and the Round Tops. He then sent Ewells divisions against the Union right flank at Culp’s and East Cemetery Hills. By evening, the Union forces still held  Little Round Top  and had repulsed most of Ewell’s forces. During the morning of July 3, the Union struck back and were able to drive the Confederate infantry from their last toe-hold on Culp’s Hill. That  afternoon, after a short artillery bombardment, Lee decided to push the attack on the Union center on Cemetery Ridge. The Pickett-Pettigrew assault (more popularly, Pickett’s Charge) briefly struck through the Union line but was quickly repulsed with severe casualties. At the same time, Stuart’s cavalry tried to gain the Union rear, but his forces were also repulsed. On July 4, Lee began withdrawing his army toward Williamsport on the Potomac River. His train of wounded stretched more than fourteen miles. Significance of the Battle of Gettysburg The Battle of Gettysburg is seen as the turning point of the war. General Lee had  attempted and failed to invade the North. This was a move designed to remove pressure from Virginia and possibly emerge victorious so as to quickly end the war. The failure of Pickett’s Charge was the sign of the Souths loss. This loss for the Confederates was demoralizing. General Lee would never attempt another invasion of the North to this degree.

Perception of Students' Regarding Online Courses Essay

Perception of Students' Regarding Online Courses - Essay Example The findings reveal that students largely consider their online courses as of good quality, but there are concerns regarding the future career. Research findings also highlight that course content need to be made more easy and sufficient to facilitate better understanding and the website need to facilitate easy navigation and better interaction so that the students can remain engaged with the material and be motivated to study. Topic: Perception of Students’ Regarding Online Courses Table of Contents 1. Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1 2. Literature Review------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 3. Research Methodology------------------------------------------------------------------------5 4. Research Findings------------------------------------------------------------------------------7 5. Conclusions ----------------------------------------------------------------------- -------------14 6. ... s’ on the Sufficiency of the Content-------------------10 Figure 3: Perceptions of Students’ on the Contents’ ability to Engage and Interest--10 Figure 4: Perceptions of Students’ on the Website Navigation----------------------------11 Figure 5: Perceptions of Students’ on the 24-hr Availability of the Content-----------11 Figure 6: Perceptions of Students’ on the Content Interactivity--------------------------12 Figure 7: Perceptions of Students’ on their ability to remain self-motivated and disciplined---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------13 Figure 8: Perceptions of Students’ about their Career Prospects ------------------------13 7. List of Appendices Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire-----------------------------------------------------------15 8. References--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------16 1 Topic: Perception of Stude nts’ Regarding Online Courses 1. Introduction The rapid proliferation of Internet and improvements in Information and Communications Technology (ICT) have made it possible for students to access and enrol in courses offered online by foreign Universities. While this has large scale implications for the global education, it also helps students to obtain certifications and degrees in subjects and from colleges that were previously out of their reach. While there are a large number of Universities that offer online courses (Allen and Seaman, 2010), and there is substantial recognition of such online courses in the corporate world (Wanstreet, 2006), there are also several challenges inherent in the technology and the mode of delivery that impact the efficacy of the courses (Shi and Morrow, 2006). There are several problems related

Busnisse law final exam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Busnisse law final exam - Essay Example The above scenario can therefore be discussed under promissory estoppel which is a legal law that requires the promisor to honor his or her promise to the promisee. The board in its meeting passed a decision which was based on a promise about paying Faithful $3000 per month as pension as a sort of reward after he retires. The pension promise is implemented only for a period less than two years of which he was in good health. The new president therefore stopping his pension payment despite it having been recorded by the board is nothing short of a breach of a promise. It can be argued that the real reason the pension was stopped was because Faithful became ill and hence was thought to therefore be in no position to assist the company in any way despite him being retired and would therefore be more of a liability than an asset. According to the promissory estoppel, even though it is not legally binding in the sense of a contract with mutual consent, the promisor still has to honor the promise made to the promisee no matter the situation. The court can therefore demand the company to continue paying Faithful the promised pension whether he is sick or not and with this ruling, Faithful can recover his promised pension and continue to enjoy it as before. Homeowner is legally liable to be compensated by Better and also Retailer under negligence defense in the law of tort because of the newly enforced law in the state of East Colombia. According to him, he thought that the mower manufacturer and even seller had honored and implemented the law and hence he was sure it was safe for him to reach under the mower once he applied the brakes on it. In order to prove liability and make a strong defense, the plaintiff suing for negligence has to have had a duty of care from the defense, the duty has to have been breached and caused damage to the plaintiff (Miller and Cross, 123). All these conditions have been

Challenges to Kingstons Tourism Industry

Challenges to Kingstons Tourism Industry Kingston has many natural, heritage and infrastructural assets that lend themselves to the development of urban tourism and, at one time, was viewed as a viable tourist destination. The citys history, however, indicates a level of creeping neglect and social turmoil which has led to what is today, an almost non-existent tourist presence. However, it is the social problems that are faced by Kingston, in the form of poverty, crime, and violence, that form the strongest arguments in favour of the development of tourism infrastructure in Kingston. It argued that these are merely symptoms of the greater problem of social exclusion and the lack of economic opportunities for the community at large. Therefore infrastructural development that leads to the creation of sustainable employment opportunities is required. The citys current dependency on manufacturing and related industries has failed to provide the growth or economic benefits required, particularly since the liberalization of the Jamaican economy and the removal of trade protection. Jamaica has not been competitive, neither as a low cost producer of manufactured goods nor as centre of excellence in any particular manufacturing process, not even when compared with its Caribbean neighbours, such as Trinidad and Tobago. It is therefore unlikely that this sector will be the engine of future growth required to provide the people of Kingston with the economic and social benefits required. Conversely, Jamaica has gained significant comparative advantage in tourism, even though its capital city has not been central to this thus far. Many cities in the US and around the globe, facing decline in their manufacturing or primary industries, have embarked on a similar development path and like these cities, Kingston has few available development options. However, research suggests a positive relationship between investment in infrastructure and between performance as well as between tourism and welfare. The writer suggests that properly managed tourism infrastructure in Kingston has the potential to provide significant benefits to its citizens. There is, however very little indication that tourism development in Kingston is high on the agenda of tourism policymakers. The Tourism Master Plan, while acknowledging Kingstons assets, does not make it a priority and merely passes the responsibility to the UDC. Additionally, while a number of papers, studies and plans exist that relates to various sections of Kingston, and some of these do acknowledge the tourism potential, there appears to be very little co-ordination of these initiatives and no central body that is responsible for guiding the achievement of the various plans. It is recognized that the successful development of tourism in Kingston requires the involvement of the central government, local government, the private sector and active participation of the community. It is suggested that while the government will have some role to play in the provision of basic infrastructure, the major investment in tourism infrastructure should come from the private sector. Beyond this however, the government needs to create the environment to encourage this private sector investment and act as facilitator to the development by addressing such issues as: Creation of the tax regime that would facilitate the development Development and encouragement of the capital markets Legislation to facilitate removal of derelict buildings and facilitate city cleanup Inner city housing solutions that provide good living conditions for the community Assessment and address of social and environment issues Provision for security of citizens and assets Tourism planners need to have a clear understanding of the key drivers that affect the demand for tourism products and extensive research may be required into the key factors affecting the major sources of tourists that would gain value from visiting Kingston. Markets include the, dsts VFR, CariEuropean markets, which are not heavily penetrated by the present offerings of resort towns, would make ideal initial candidates markets to be studied, applications of Butlers Area Life cycle Model to the destinations in Jamaica may be useful as it is possible that the creation of Kingston as an alternative location could strengthen Jamaicas strategic offerings. This is especially important as the resort towns approach the later stage of the life cycle and over-capacity becomes a more significant limiting factor for tourism growth an issue. At present, the governments ownership of the national airline Air Jamaica arTe Jamaica UTban Transit Company Limited (JUTC) and the ownership and operation of the Norman Manley International Airport make it an active player in the provision of tourism transportation in Kingston. In addition to its ro as policy setter and regulator the government will and therefore require fulg of the factors affecting the tourism demand and s tourism transportation. It is anticipated that Kingston will become a major cruise shipping destination and this will potentially raise issues and conflicts with the container shipping industry. There is little doubt that crime and of the major issues facing the markets acceptance of Kingston as a viable destination. However, , it is important that this is not used we do not use this as of investment. It is noted that in Jamaicas crime against tourists is relatively low and it is also noted that other countries that have high crime levels, are considered as viable tourist destinations. While the hosting by Jamaica of the semifinal of the Cricket World Cup in 2007 will may not be judge a shining success either financially or as a catalyst for tourism, the hosting does provide a number of lessons which need to be utilized in the future. It cannot be denied that the use of such events to Kick Start tourism in Kingston, if properly planned and managed could be an important part of the tourism planners strategic tool kit. A Strategic Plan is required In the writers opinion there is a clear need for a Strategic Plan for the development of Kingston; a component of which should be the development of tourism. This plan must have as one of its deliverables; the formulation of a clear vision for tourism in Kingston. This vision must be shared among the stakeholders including, national and city Government, the relevant Public Sector bodies, the private sector and the community. A clear understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of Kingston as a potential destination for tourists is required and in this regard it is important that the discourse on crime and violence and the impact on tourism is clearly understood. A significant output of the strategic plan should be a full inventory and assessment of the existing attributes, tourism assets such as attractions, potential attractions and infrastructural assets in the Kingston Metropolitan Area (KMA). This will need to be compared with the desired assets and infrastructure to determine the required investments. This investment is likely to be very significant and, given Jamaicas current fiscal constraints, is not likely to be accommodated in the present budgetary environment. The discussion of PPII does touch on infrastructure financing, though it is recognized that creative and innovative ways need to be developed to finance the development. A key issue, which must be fully considered, discussed and evaluated in the strategic plan is the issue of Leadership and Politics. While this has not been discussed in detail in this paper, it cannot be ignored as it represented a common theme in a number of the case studies that were reviewed, including St Louis, Baltimore and especially Montreal. Additional Research Required It is recognized that it is beyond the scope of this paper to consider all the applicable areas that require consideration. There is, for example, significant scope for new research to be carried out in order to understand the attitudes of the community, in Kingston and Jamaica generally, towards the active development of tourism in Kingston. It is important to determine whether the community will view such developments as being positive, viable and beneficial to them. and therefore we wish to , the the benefits that will the stakeholders in the unity will expect tain from delivering that value to the tourists and, the positive and negative social and environmental impacts that re expected to result from increased tourism and the related development need to be answered? There is also a need to carry out research into the potential markets mentioned earlier before embarking on significant infrastructural or marketing expenditure. Additional data on what type of tourist may be targeted, where they will come from and what value will they get they will get from would be beneficial to future developers.

Beowulfs Manifestation of Hrothgars Lessons :: Epic Beowulf essays

Beowulf's Manifestation of Hrothgar's Lessons "We have not seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered contemptible; the rest have failed."   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   --Machiavelli, The Prince            Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In this statement --and in the rest of his major work, The Prince -- Machiavelli attempts to justify the cruelty of a leader; it is necessary, he seems to say, to be feared in order to succeed.   It is doubtful that the renaissance political theorist ever read the poem of Beowulf; in any case, he did not very much with its message. For if its titular hero followed the maxims of Machiavelli, Hrothgar, the leader of the Danes in the poem, contends that it will bring upon pride and, ultimately, Beowulf's downfall. Hrothgar's message is exactly contrasting to that of Machiavelli's. His political theory states that it is necessary to be good-willed to one's people and to refrain from being blinded by pride in order to be a successful leader. Fortunately for Beowulf, during his fifty-year reign as the ruler of the Geats he follows Hrothgar's sagacious lesson; consequently, he is compassionate leader who never lets his pride overcome his judgment.    Throughout his reign as the ruler of the Geats, Beowulf is a benevolent leader - bringing peace and power to his nation as Hrothgar instructs him to after the great warrior defeats Grendel's mother. Hrothgar relates to him a story about the Heremod, King of the Danes, who "brought little joy to the Danish people, only death and destruction" (1711-1712), and that "suffered in the end for having plagued his people" (1720-1721). That is, Hrothgar claims that one cannot be a successful leader unless one is virtuous ruler. Furthermore, he tells Beowulf to "learn from this and understand true value" (1723-1724). Therefore, Hrothgar's intends that this information be carried on with Beowulf. During his final moments, after he kills the treasure hording dragon, Beowulf reflects on his reign over the Geats, and those reflections demonstrate that he understands the importance of virtue and honor. He claims that he "cared for and stood by things in [his] keeping, never fomented qua rrels, never swore to a lie" (2736-2739). His goodwill and righteousness is highly regarded by the warrior, for he continues, "the Ruler of mankind need never blame me [.

ESP Course at Technical Secondary Vocational School for Construction and Building Trade students Essay

The paper is about ESP course in technical secondary school to construct the trade students. The paper first discuses the meaning of ESP and then tells about its characteristics. It discusses the role of English as a trade and finance language globally and then further narrates the various steps that are being taken by various countries’ governments to promote English for Specific Purposes programs for its workforce. The paper reflects that these governments understand the importance of introducing ESP courses at secondary level so that their people can comfortable choose the vocational field of their own choice. This paper offers a research of made efforts especially by Asian countries. There are three reasons for the emergence of ESP (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): i) The revolution in linguistics; ii) The demands of a Brave New World and iii) Focus on the learner ESP has some following characteristics (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ ESP is to fulfill some particular requirements of the learner. †¢ ESP includes grammar, lexis, skills and varieties of activities. †¢ ESP can have some particular disciplines. †¢ ESP is mainly planned for intermediate or advanced students. †¢ ESP is planned for adult learners who can be at secondary level also that is in a professional work situation. According to Dudley Evans and St. John (1998), there are five major roles for an ESP practitioner: i) course designer; ii) teacher; iii) researcher; iv) collaborator and v) evaluator (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). David Carter has categorized ESP in three parts (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ English with some particular topics †¢ English for Occupational and Academic Purposes both †¢ English as a Restricted Language English with some particular topics transfer from purpose to topics and it is generally used by the scientists. Hutchinson and Waters have made three divisions of English for Occupational and Academic Purposes: a) English for Business and Economics that is EBE; b) English for Science and Technology that is EST; c) English for Social Studies that is ESS. English as a Restricted Language is used by traffic controllers and by waiters (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). According to Carter (1983) ESP courses have three common features (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001): †¢ Authentic Material †¢ Purpose Related Orientation †¢ Self-Direction Dudley Evans (1997) has argued that ESP should be recommended at secondary or intermediate level. His argument was that at this stage authentic leaning material is very practical that can be modified and unmodified in form which makes it ESP’s main characteristic. It emphasizes on self directed study and research tasks. Most of the students were evaluated on the basis of independent study assignments for doing language preparation for Employment in Health Sciences where the learners needed to make researches and they had to show their area of interest. The students were motivated to make researches by using various kinds of resources including internet (Kristen Gatehouse, 2001). In the 21st century the function of English has become as the language of trade, technology and finance. This language is bonding the rest of the business world for international trade and economic development. The children who belong to this globalize age, it has become necessary for them to get hold of the communication abilities in English as a business and trade language (Dorothea C. Lazaro and Erlinda M. Medalla, 2004). As ESP program is spreading in various countries on different levels, in Czechoslovakia it began in 1991 that aimed to promote the teaching of ESP in the Technical Universities and their allied institutions (Serena Yeo, 1995). Presently the aim of the course is almost same but there are some changes to use it at some broader aspect to make it more influential. It aims to increase the confidence of teachers at secondary level. Various kinds of seminars are conducted by the advisors for the university lecturers and ESP teachers of vocational and specialist secondary schools (Serena Yeo, 1995). In many developing countries of Asia, the altering demands of the labor force are daring the utility of traditional schooling and university education. People want the assurance the skills and the language learned at school will help them professionally. In Japan, ESP is being widely recognized and ESP training programs are being given importance. The main idea is to motivate the students by improving their communication skills which later help them to adopt the professional field of their choice. China is also vigorously executing English proficiency training programs to motivate its people. ESP courses are being introduced at secondary level. In Taiwan, English has become compulsory subject at junior and senior levels in schools. Hong Kong is also following the same trend (Dorothea C. Lazaro and Erlinda M. Medalla, 2004). Now there is a hope that these motivations on various levels in many countries can have a bright future for ESP that is being understood a major effort to build the future of students professionally or vocational level. For making it more successful the role of teacher is also being assumed very significant. So it can be observed that the teaching of ESP at vocational level is very much demanding everywhere in schools.