Business Economics Essay

Cindy wants to invest in a new business that involves the installation of solar panels. In order to make an informed decision on this business venture, she will need to review potential profit/loss in the solar panel industry by considering future prospects for this type of business. Cindy also needs to decide whether she will invest her own funds or borrow the money to start the business. The imminent growth of the solar photovoltaic (PV) industry is almost certain. When observing the rising costs of coal and natural gas prices, the decrease of PV system costs, and the government support of solar technology, the PV market looks to have a significant increase in volume over the next few years. According to SolarBuzz, a website dedicated to Solar Power and Energy, The solar PV industry has reached a critical tipping point, with end-market demand hitting record levels almost every quarter. This growth is being driven by leading module suppliers and project developers that returned to profitability during 2013, and which have now established highly-effective global sales and marketing networks.† (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) The article also states that â€Å"demand in Q1’14 will also achieve record-breaking status, as the strongest first-quarter ever seen by the PV industry.† (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) The cost of production for solar panels has decreased significantly. â€Å"The average cost for tier 1 solar photovoltaic manufacturers is expected to fall 6% during 2014, continuing the downward trend set in place since 2008, bringing the overall cost to a record low of $0.20 per watt, according to the latest research from NPD. (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) Further consumer incentives include lower utility bills, increased tax credits and higher resale values. â€Å"Homes with solar-power system using photovoltaic (PV) panels sell for an average of $24,705 more than homes without PV systems, research finds.† (Tanaka, 2014) The government supports the concept of solar power and aims to make it a major energy source. â€Å"Solar power as cheap as coal†¦ that is the holy grail of the solar power industry† (R. Glenn Hubbard, 2012) Government support includes generous subsidies to the consumer and producers of the PV industry. â€Å"Government agencies, utilities and others offer a variety of tax credits, rebates and other incentives to support energy efficiency, encourage the use of renewable energy sources, and support efforts to conserve energy and lessen pollution.† (Energy, 2014) I see four main factors influencing the price elasticity of demand: †¢Availability of close substitutes. Are there many available close substitutes for solar panels? The demand will tend to be elastic if Cindy and her customer can switch among the various types of PV’s for the same desired feature. †¢Are PV’s a necessity or a luxury? Currently, PV’s would be considered an elastic form of energy because there are other forms of electricity (coal/power plants). We once considered personal computers a luxury and they are now a necessity. Perhaps PV’s will be viewed the same way in the future. †¢How much of my income will PV’s consume? A large portion of consumer’s income equals elasticity. What portion of income can your client devote to the cost of solar panels? If it is a large share (elastic), what tradeoffs will client need to consider to make it a worthwhile purchase? †¢What is the time horizon when making decisions on PV’s? PV systems have productive life cycles of 30-50 years. (Brownson, 2014) A longer time horizon is said to be elastic. Recommendations Upon review of various criteria such as elasticity of demand, cost of production, etc, I would encourage Cindy to pursue this business venture. This sector is set to grow exponentially in the future. The fall in solar PV prices as well as other incentives will cause higher demand for  installation. This will benefit Cindy’s new business venture by bringing more installation business and lower input costs. This can be seen in the demand supply figure: It also makes good economic sense for Cindy to borrow money for her solar panel business venture as the government provides various subsidies to businesses involved in clean energy. â€Å"In total, the federal energy tax subsidies will cost more than $16 billion in 2013, up from only $5 billion in 2005.† (Bastach, 2013) Cindy can benefit from a piece of the clean energy subsidy pie. Bibliography Bastach, M. (2013, March 13). Most energy tax subsidies go toward green energy, energy efficiency. Retrieved from The Daily Caller: http://dailycaller.com/2013/03/14/cbo-most-energy-tax-subsidies-go-toward-green-energy-energy-efficiency/ Brownson, J. (2014, May 25). Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering. Retrieved from Penn State University: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme810/node/593 Energy, U. D. (2014, may 25). Tax Credits, Rebates, and Savings. Retrieved from Energy.gov: http://energy.gov/savings NPD Group, Inc. (2013, December). Solarbuzz. Retrieved from Solarbuzz: http://www.solarbuzz.com/news/recent-findings/strong-growth-forecast-solar-pv-industry-2014-demand-reaching-49-gw R. Glenn Hubbard, A. P. (2012). Economics. VitalSouce bookshelf version. Tanaka, S. (2014, May 22). Payback Time for Solar-Power Energy Systems. Retrieved from The Wall Street Journal: http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304198504579571960667560156?mg=reno64-wsj&url=http%3A%2F%2F online.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702304198504579571960667560156.html

Carl Jung: The Undiscovered Self Essay

?The book of C. G Jung â€Å"The Undiscovered Self† was written during the cold war concerning communism. He saw during this time the trend toward collectivism as the utmost threat to the individual self. He expresses grief over the adoption of mass mindedness, and encourages its psychic depreciation. Witnessing the physical and psychological destruction of war, Jung provides the reader his analytic interpretation of the incomparable loss of self in the intrusion of secular religion and social collectivism. Jung shows that although science tries to impose order on the world, the unique thing about real facts, conversely, is their individuality. However, the psyche remains irresolvable puzzle. An individual have to understand not the humanity as a whole but rather than the self. Whenever individual is pressured by a group an effect will occur just like part of the individual self will be deprived in order to fit-in to the benchmark of the group. The individual stops thinking of itself as a result the group becomes the personality of the individual. The dilemma of a human being in the world he lives is losing his self in the process of balancing the factors that can affect him as an individual. We have to get ourselves in order before we can get the rest of the world in order. Yes, man as a social being cannot continue life in the long run without the link to the community. But it doesn’t mean that the community will define us. We are necessitated to have always the sense of balance between the state, religions, and of course our individual psyche. Seeing in the model these three are demonstrated by the two forces, the conscious and unconscious. Later on this paper, it will be further discuss more. Going back, if we have a propensity to maintain the balance between the three, we can attain the self-knowledge that will characterize us, as a real individual. The model shows that there are factors that can affect one’s self knowledge. In the book, Jung tries to point out that the self-knowledge of a human being is a very limited knowledge since it only depends on the social factors that can affect it. There are many blind spots in self-knowledge, and these blind spots can have negative consequences for the self and for others. For example, one who overestimates the positivity of his or her personality or status is often disliked by others, whereas having insight into how others perceive the self and acknowledging one’s flaws seems to attenuate the negativity of others’ impressions. Poor self-knowledge is also associated with negative intrapersonal consequences, such as weak academic achievement and emotional problems. Likewise, lack of insight into how one will feel or behave in the future tends to result in poor decision making, disappointment with unpredicted outcomes, and ultimately lower life satisfaction. What we primarily know about our self is the conscious state. We are not acquainted that there is an inner state that is within us that can help to shape more our own self-knowledge. What I am talking about here is the unconscious psychic. We could have known that this unconscious psychic can outweigh the conscious psychic. In short, one cannot exist without the other. These two psychic forces should team up to promote a more apparent understanding of the self-knowledge. In reality there are conscious and unconscious agendas in the brain and both are important. It does not help to play the unconscious off against the conscious. In the brain at any time most of the agendas are unconscious, much of it is, however, consciousness-prone. The conscious and the unconscious always work together, not only in dreams but also in wakefulness. Our conscience for instance can admonish us out of the unconscious core from our memory, but by doing so it becomes conscious, and it is then the task of the reasoned will to draw the consequences out of it. The unconscious is not the â€Å"bad something† Freud had conceived, a something that plays tricks on us. It is rather the ground worker for consciousness, the staff that supports the leader. And the leader is: The conscious, reasoned free will. Why the unconscious is termed as the â€Å"evil† inside us? As a normal individual whenever we don’t like something about ourselves, or whenever we refuse to admit something about ourselves, we push those energies deep within the recesses of our psyche, creating cut off versions of who we really are. And to make matters even more difficult, we give those energies, bad names like â€Å"shadows† â€Å"demons† and â€Å"negative vibes. † As stated on the book, â€Å"Since it universally believed that man is merely what his consciousness knows of itself, he regards himself as harmless and so adds stupidity to iniquity. He does not deny that terrible things have happened and still go on happening, but it is always â€Å"the others† who do them. † Man has the fear of recognizing the shadow that is in the very first place was there. This fear of the unconscious psyche to be divulged slows down the understanding of self-knowledge. Since mentioned before, the conscious and unconscious must maintain equilibrium to achieve self-knowledge to the real extent. Human must not fear the shadow that dwells inside us. Where in reality, this shadow can help us to mold the individualism we want to resolve. If a general had no idea regarding what constitutes a favorable battle outcome, there would be no utility in simulating battle formations. Evaluating potential actions is challenging because it depends on taking diverse considerations into account (e. g. , physical or social consequences). Most knowledge regarding what is favorable is already embodied in the very agentic systems that, before the advent of suppression, controlled behavior directly. Unconscious conflict resolution processes thus furnish valuable information to conscious processes of planning for the future. Given sufficiently strong motivations and commitment to the planned course of action, specific plans such as â€Å"when X happens, I will do Y† themselves operate automatically when the future opportunity arises, as in the implementation intention research of Gollwitzer and colleagues (e. g. , Gollwitzer, 1999). In this way, unconscious processes not only adapt us to the present situation, but they also influence the tracks we lay to guide our future behavior. As mention earlier in this paper, the state and religion including the individual psyche should maintain a sense of stability in an individual. Man should not let neither the state nor religion, take away his individuality. One chapter of the book was entitled â€Å"Religion as the Counterbalance to Mass-mindedness†. Religion is defined as an, â€Å"organized belief system that includes shared and institutionalized moral values, beliefs about God, and involvement in religious community,† Individuals may be spiritual not religious, religious not spiritual, religious and spiritual, or neither spiritual nor religious. Often times the spiritual not religious individual is seeking meaning, connection with others, and completeness. The religious not spiritual person typically participates in religious institutions, holds theistic beliefs, and institutionalized moral values. The spiritual and religious person holds characteristics of both while the neither spiritual nor religious person holds few if any of these characteristics. In the book, Jung distinguishes between religion and creed, labeling religion as the relationship of an individual to God and a creed as a confession of faith in a collective belief. Creeds have codified their views, customs and beliefs and externalized themselves to such an extent that the external point of reference has become of minor importance. Jung tries to point out that, religion like the state yearn for the individual to sacrifice himself. The state and the religion have the same objective towards an individual but they have different line of attack to grasp it. Neither the state nor the religion is unscrupulous. In fact, we do need them, but they must be at the same rank in one’s self. One should not override the other, for it must be keep upright. Examine the spirits that speak in you. Become critical. –Carl Jung References: Carlson, E. N. (2013). Overcoming the Barriers to Self-Knowledge : Mindfulness as a Path to Seeing Yourself as You Really Are. Perspectives on Psychological Sciences , 2. Deecke, L. (2012). There Are Conscious and Unconscious Agendas in the Brain. 4. Morsella, J. A. (2008). The Unconscious Mind. 7-8. Nickles, T. (2011). THE ROLE OF RELIGION AND SPIRITUALITY IN COUNSELING. 3-4.

END OF BUSINESS CYCLE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

END OF BUSINESS CYCLE - Essay Example Most economist believe that the country was in a recession as the country had posted two quarters of negative growth and was not anywhere close to the 2.5% or 3% growth it had achieved in the previous year 2000. The year 2007 ended with a 0.6% GDP as compared to 4.9% in the 3rd quarter. 2008 started with the 0.9% at the end of the 1st quarter. The last two quarters show no negative growth so technically the economy is not in a recession. The above table shows a slight increase in the GDP rate for the 1st quarter of 2008 as compared to the fourth in 2007. The marginal uptrend is the result of Government expenditure; exports and the positive trend in personal consumption expenditure .The last two quarters are a classic example when the economy is underutilizing its labor and capital. The economy is slowly shrinking away from its potential and this can lead to a recession. The Personal consumption expenditure though not negative has clearly failed to grow in the 1st quarter leading to inventory accumulation. This will force businesses to cut back on production in an effort to reduce inventories. Unemployment rises as workers are laid off and incomes reduce. This further brings down consumption spending, investment spending on machinery, and plant. Businesses adopt a pessimistic approach worried about future sales and demand.3 The above figures can be achieved only if more disposal income is available to the common person, which will in turn increase spending, and demand for goods and services. The forecast also rings bells of the steep rise required in the GDP during the forthcoming quarters of the year. 2. Pick two factors cited in the Economist article that you think will have the most impact on future business cycles Explain why they are important and whether you think they will contribute to more severe or less severe business cycles? We can divide the above-mentioned factors into two major categories Management factors

Revolutionary Leadership in Russian Revolution and the Arab Spring Essay

Revolutionary Leadership in Russian Revolution and the Arab Spring - Essay Example To start with, the general complexity of the given cases is the reason for drawing on their similarities and differences. In fact, it is not right to comprehend all the three revolutions in Egypt, Libya, and Tunisia as a general phenomenon. Moreover, it is hard to comprehend an overall process of the Russian revolution in a sketch too. Thus, it is necessary to determine the key leadership and the starting conditions of these four countries in order to provide any comparison between them. On the one hand, Anderson (2011) believes that Arab countries are different among all in terms of their economic ground and social fabric. In other words, by referring to the Arab Spring countries we consider three different in their internal environment states (Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya). For instance, the main forces for change in Tunisia were the local trade union (UGTT), lawyers, and journalists; but in Egypt, the revolution was headed by linked to the political opposition the April 6 Movement. H ence, the leadership of the Arab Spring is not the same not only in terms of concrete personalities but also in the social background of these forces. Furthermore, the key problems that encouraged these countries to change are also not the same. In the days prevailing the revolution, Tunisia was a tourist-oriented and powerful. In fact, the revolution in this country emerged as a response to the way â€Å"the Ben Ali family plundered the economy and repressed all autonomous attempts at political expressions†.

Heat Transfer Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Heat Transfer - Essay Example Distillation columns are in two categories; continuous and batch-process. The batch-process distills one batch of mixtures at a time; introduction of fresh batches only happens once the first batch is over. A continuous column feeds constantly on fresh mixture. The units deal with a continuous feed streams uninterruptedly (Nisenfeld & Seemann 1981). Distillation columns are vital in the industrial arena e.g. in distillation of crude oil. Crude oil heats to 350-400oC, and, the vapor and the liquid channeled into the distilling column. The vapor rises as it passes through the perforated plates and the liquid falls to the bottom. The hydrocarbons which are heavier condense faster and settle on the lower trays. The lighter hydrocarbons remain longer in their vapor state and later condense on the higher trays. A heat exchanger cools distillates. Distillation occurs at tremendously high temperatures. The columns use an air cooled heat exchanger for cooling. A heat exchanger is equipment built for transfer of heat from one medium to another, efficiently (Nellis & Klein, 2009). Heat exchangers find their uses in refrigeration, power plants, sewage treatment, air conditioning, and natural gas processing and petroleum refineries. The air cooled heat exchanger is a pressure vessel whose function is to cool the circulating fluid in finned tubes by forcing ambient air, by directing the heat to water or air. The radiator of a car is an example of an air cooler. The objective of using an air cooled heat exchanger is to increase the efficiency of a plant, and its environmentally friendly effect of not requiring an auxiliary supply of water and no water treatment chemicals required, compared to cooling tower counterparts. The problems of chemical and thermal pollution from cooling fluids do not exist while using the air cooled heat exchanger (Kroger, 2004). Industrial applications, which do not have a reliable water

Admin law and Human rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Admin law and Human rights - Essay Example Factors considers in this respect include irrational decisions, biasness, a breach of human rights or other stipulated laws; as a result of initiating judicial review since 1985 in the UK, unlawful decisions in the public realm are challenged in the court of law. Compainants can also file a case if they feel that further ctions need to be taken after completion of trial.1This occurs through filing official complaint by following the right procedure as stipulated by the complaints procedure. In addition, judicial review has established alternative mechanisms such mediation and other dispute resolution mechanisms. Further, as a result of judicial review, other laws exist such as social security and immigration law2. Judicial review provides citizens with a leeway to redress grievances where decisions or actions are executed in unlawful manner. Through this mechanism, complainants obtain compensation to cover damage or loss from actions by public bodies that is not public law. Currently , citizens have a right to apply for public law remedy. The existence of public funds assists in terms of facilitating a judicial review. To access public funding, the complainants need to meet the required criteria. Through a review; a judge can review whether a decision is executed lawfully by the right authority, and in this context, a public body. A review is possible where: there is biasness in terms the public body arriving at a decision considered unlawful or no other alternative remedy 1. The genesis of new remedy dates back to 1978, as applied in England and Wales, this was brought about by Order 53 that focuses on rules established by the Supreme Court; further, Order 53 allows for private remedies. This includes filing unlawful decisions in the courts, as a result of the Order; complainants have opportunity to challenge executive action3. Exclusive powers often impede on judicial review; therefore, judicial review since 1985 forms part of public life. Prior to the establi shment of judicial review, executive actions were not questioned, this impeded on individuals rights4. Establishing judicial review contributes to an increase of cases filed in courts; in essence, there is more clout in terms of the judiciary intervening in unlawful decisions by the public bodies5. However, despite judicial review cutting on executive action, it is subject to abuse. Individual may capitalize on the procedure to delay rulings touching on public policies. Tighter controls should be established, this would help in terms of minimizing piling up of cases in courts and a fast execution of justice. As a specific measure, judicial review should focus on genuine complaints, this assists significantly in holding public bodies’ responsible6. Through the review process, the government is kept at bay regarding enforcement of various public policies7. Challenging decisions arrived by public bodies is important in terms of maintaining balance and check to curb on abuse of p ower. In a case of  Sackett v. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, for example, the Court unanimously agreed the couple were entitled to an early federal court review of an EPA compliance order declaring that they filled wetlands on their property illegally8.   This process is synonymous with statutory appeal; however, application for court proceedings has a stipulated period, this must not exceed utmost three months. Successful judicial reviews often lead to nullifying the previous decision; therefore, nullifying decisions means, the complainants obtains new ruling favourable to all parties. Regarding the issue of time limits, judicial review applications are endorsed by the court. The first step in the process involves writing a

Human Resources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Resources - Essay Example Job Ad for Human Resources Receptionist Position Currently Open: HUMAN RESOURCES RECEPTIONIST Work Location: (please specify your location) Core Responsibilities: †¢ Performs administrative functions for all office personnel †¢ Assists various stakeholders on human resources inquiries †¢ Answers communication protocols (phones, emails, front duty correspondences) †¢ Monitors staff time and information needed for payroll preparation †¢ Maintains human resources forms and requests for leaves, transfers and performance reviews. †¢ Maintains the upkeep of reception area, including effective use of office supplies and resources. Required Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities: †¢ One year office experience preferred †¢ Knowledge of computer systems and software applications †¢ Positive and helpful customer service image for the department †¢ Possesses congenial and highly presentable personality †¢ Possesses exemplary communication and interpersonal relationship skills Education, Experience, certifications, and Licenses: Education: The knowledge, skills and abilities typically acquired through the completion of a high school diploma or GED. Years of Relevant Work Experience: 1 to 2 years of experience with a multi-line phone system in an office setting Certificates/Licenses: none... 5. Coordinate with the company’s IT department or authorized knowledgeable personnel to feature an online classified advertisement through the company’s official website effective immediately. The online medium is most viewed in contemporary times, and therefore accessed by a wide range of prospective candidates searching for employment. 6. Arrange for online classified advertisements on two web-based job boards. Other job search networks are good sources to seek potential applicants for the job. 7. Initial applicant screening to be done by telephone, followed by an in-person interview. Phone interviews would already screen applicants in terms of communication skills, good diction, and clarity in speech and grammar use. An in-person interview would enable HR recruiter to gauge personal characteristics and traits, specifically presentability, posture, professionalism, appropriate attire and general interest and knowledge for the position being applied at. Unsuccessful ap plicants need to be contacted by telephone and in writing. 8. Conduct skills and behavioral assessments on potential candidates. As emphasized by Whyte (2011), â€Å"hiring personnel should create a test or exercise that is not biased for internal candidates, and one that is clearly suited for a position's objectives† (par. 6). The behavioral skills tests are necessary to determine â€Å"person's habits, temperament, trustworthiness, and efficiency traits are like in an objective manor. Behavioral testing results can also reveal a candidate's leadership skills, management potential and even his customer service skills, thus helping employers to make the best decision in hiring an individual† (Whyte, 2011, par. 7). 9. Preliminary successful potential candidates should be interviewed by the Human

Evaluation of intervention mapping Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Evaluation of intervention mapping - Essay Example This will be followed by choice, implementation, and evaluation of intervention methods that may pose to change the health-related behaviour. (Bartholomew et al., 1998, 545-563). If a health intervention is effective leading to change in related health practices, there would be demonstrable change in the determinants and antecedents of health behaviour. Health promotion strategies are closely related to the psychological theories of behavioural changes. These can be achieved in an organised manner through intervention mapping, which had been the result of works of L. Kay Bartholomew, Guy S. Parcel, Gerjo Kok, and Nell H. Gottlieb (Bartholomew et al., 2001), which was published as â€Å"Intervention Mapping: Developing theory and evidence-based health education programs† in the year 2001. This was designed to provide a framework for effective decision making in intervention planning, implementation, and evaluation. It is known that health promotion is possible only through an effective health education. Drawing on this, health promotion is a synergy of educational and environmental supports for actions and conditions health-conducive living. Green & Kr euter (2005) have defined health promotion as "Any combination of education, political, regulatory and organizational supports for actions and conditions of living conducive to the health of individuals, groups or communities† (Green & Kreuter, 2005, p. G-4). If these change health behaviour, appropriate evaluation is necessary to ensure detection of these changes to assess whether these conform to evidence, so the health promoters can take a decision at every step of the process of planning and implementation of intervention (Kok et al., 2004, 85-98). Theory is the pillar of evidence-informed health promotion. Interventions that address the determinants of intervention or change must be evidence based and guided by need (Green, 2000, 125-129). Many authors have concluded that

Research Methods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Research Methods - Essay Example This would enable profiling the stress factor among the various groups. Since the impact of stress levels on family life and health is being studied, the employees with more than 3 years of work experience would ideally be considered for the interview. Those from both government and private organizations will be included in the interviews. This makes the sample representative (Ejaz et al., 2008). Since the respondents are busy, they would be approached after the office hours and their appointment would be obtained keeping their convenience in mind (The Wallace Foundation Knowledge Center, 2013). An orientation regarding the subject, time requirements and general outline of the questions will also be given to the respondent, prior to getting their consent for the interview. This drives away the fear of unknown from the respondent and also helps in establishing a rapport with the interviewee (Megafon, 2013). The purpose and idea will be explained and confidentiality of data would be assured to them. This step would ensure honesty of responses. Their permission would be sought to record the interview (Crawford, 1997). The topic of study is sensitive. So, the respondents will be interviewed individually, outside their office premises. 5. Have you ever experienced any of these problems recently: memory problems, anxiety, inability to concentrate, loneliness, depression, dizziness, mood swings, short-temper, insomnia, lack of interest in food, overeating, unexplained aches and pains? The Wallace Foundation- Knowledge Center (2013). In-depth Interviews. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/after-school/collecting-and-using-data/Documents/Workbook-E-Indepth-Interviews.pdf. [Last Accessed 26 February

Future of Montserrat Essay Example for Free

Future of Montserrat Essay The island of Montserrat is situated upon an underwater volcano created by a destructive plate boundary, with the volcanos peak protruding from the south side of the island by the name of Chances Peak in an area entitled Soufriere Hills (in the Caribbean). For 350 years the volcano had remained dormant; however a few weeks ago, Chances Peak became active again and began to emit dust and ash – warning signs that an eruption was almost imminent. On July 20th 1995 (yesterday) the anticipated eruption occurred, producing numerous quandaries for the surviving residents of Montserrat. Montserratians will experience the social impacts of the eruption; these may be the most direct of all the predicaments they encounter and therefore the most challenging to face. Since the volcanos on the island are perceived as unpredictable, the inhabitants are fearful of another eruption. Though they are presently being transferred to a temporary safe region, it is unknown whether a subsequent eruption would be more severe than the first and raise the figures for the injured or killed (19) unnecessarily. Hence the many who have left the island to reside (maybe permanently) in neighbouring islands, the UK or the USA, however this only applies to the populace that possess sufficient funds to do so. The safe regions are reportedly extremely crowded; consequently, with the low sanitation levels, the spread of disease will accelerate. Also, farmers are unable to farm due to constricted land and the devastating environmental impacts of the volcano. If the more wealthy (we can assume the more educated) no longer choose to reside in the island, a ‘brain drain’ will transpire, leaving farmers and communities with small businesses that rely on tourism on Montserrat, though if eruptions cease and the volcano becomes dormant again, life for the farmers could improve as over time the soil of the area would be very fertile. As a result of the ‘brain drain’ there would be an absence of teachers; therefore the children on Montserrat would not be able to learn for a period of time. Moreover, a deficiency of doctors and hospital personnel would leave many people in need of medical help unattended to. Furthermore, persons already residing in the north of the island would have to compromise with the new displaced people; this may cause some feuds over pace etc†¦ The GDP and GNP of Montserrat are predicted to face dramatic cutbacks due simply to the loss of people on the island, and the lack of income from farmers who do not have access to land they can farm on, or businesses that have been destroyed – which is common as many companies were positioned in Plymouth – a city that was completely covered by ash and soon after finished off by deadly pyroclastic flows. If the GDP and GNP do fall, citizens who have decided to stay will be significantly poorer, and therefore may not be able to pay taxes. In addition, a vast sum would have to be paid in damages to property and the building of temporary displaced peoples camps. Due to ash clouds, airports would be closed down, and airlines would have to pay massive amounts in lost revenues. Conversely, industries for other forms of transport (such as shipping companies) would benefit, as passengers search for alternatives to flying. The frequency of imports and exports would not decrease massively as a mere 1% of trade in the UK occurs on flights. Also, (elaborating on the point of aid given by other countries above) since the Montserrat was included in the Federal Colony of British Leeward Islands, the UK may offer some financial support to help improve the islands economy if the damage to it is serious enough. Additionally, the volcano has had colossal impacts on the environment (both positive and negative). Firstly, the ash has suffocated many of the flora and fauna, furthermore, the pyroclastic flow and lahars have killed all life (excluding human) within a 2km radius. Carbon dioxide emitted from the volcano is predicted by scientists to contribute to the greenhouse effect, sulphur dioxide expected to cause environmental issues as sulphur in the stratosphere is the main cause of acid rain. Nonetheless, as a result of two thirds of the islands population predicted to leave the island) the flora and fauna may flourish as there will be less human activity and settlements, leaving nature to itself without interference from machines, factories, and other forms of pollution. The land and soil affected by the volcano will also become fertile, which will, in turn, enhance the growth of plants and trees after an amount of time, and allow them to regrow. The slopes of Chances peak after the eruption are reportedly steeper than before, which will promote growth of delicate, and rare plants can grow with the protection of the slope. The volcano is also expected to alter the weather around Montserrat, causing rain, thunder and lighting. Sea temperatures have reportedly risen, killing some species that rely on specific living conditions, also silting in rivers or lakes has forced boats to stop navigating them as the depth is insufficient. On political terms, and elaborating on the point made above concerning tax and its correspondence with the lack of people on the island, the amount of tax received by the government would decrease too, resulting in a government prone to corruption. Moreover, the government may not be considered fit to run the country by its people, and may be voted out. The government of Montserrat may be forced to relinquish their independency, and amalgamate with another country to become part of their nation (a plausible example would be Montserrat re-joining Britain). On the topic of short term needs, a few that exist are food and drink, and temporary residency areas. Since the eruption would have most likely demolished many of the populace’s properties, and belongings, they will need an alternative place to stay such as the safe zone which has been arranged in the north of the island and is one third of the islands size, compressing hundreds into a tiny space. The government would also be burdened with the task of providing sufficient food and drink for the residents as they would have no means of income, or a market area to buy their own. Medical aid has also become necessary, however not as much as expected as (thankfully) most who occupied the most affected areas had been evacuated before the eruption. Long term necessities will help sustain lives devoid of poverty and hunger for the people of Montserrat. An example of a need which will help the populace in the ‘long run’ is loans to restart businesses and companies citizens had lost in the pyroclastic flows or ash. Furthermore, the government or a country aiding Montserrat could assist by building an early detection system or research facility, to identify when future eruptions may occur, therefore allowing time to prepare. MEDC’s like the USA or the UK might be reviewing plans to assist through the means of creating rehabilitation programmes, or even allowing the people of Montserrat to apply for permanent residency; this would solve the problem or relocating people to live their lives in a safe location.

History of the Reformation in Wales

History of the Reformation in Wales The Reformation is one of the most studied, most discussed and heavily analysed periods of English history, arousing controversy and interest through the works of academics and the private study of interested individuals alike. J.A. Froude called it [T]he greatest incident in English history, but it would be just as easy to call it an act of sacrilege motivated by a selfish tyrant, interested more in perpetuating his own line than fulfilling his self-proclaimed role as defender of the faith. No matter the differences of historical opinion, its importance cannot be denied, and nor can its impact. Yet few authors have deigned to focus on the impact of this turbulent course of events on the principality of Wales, nor has there been much discussion of the role of its governor, Rowland Lee. This essay will do exactly that. It will begin with an analysis of the Reformation Acts as this author has dubbed them, the statutes enacted by Henry with the specific aim ofremaking the English church in his image. These measures affected thecountry as a whole, and any aspects peculiar to Wales will be examined. The essay will continue with a detailed look at the Welsh Acts,†statutes often called (wrongly) Acts of Union. Obviously, their effectis specific to Wales, and the attitudes of the Welsh people will be especially noteworthy here. Finally, the scope of the inquiry will turn to the man who implemented those policies as President of the Council of Wales: Rowland Lee, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. To some he was a blood-thirsty man,the hanging bishop who instigated a reign of terror. To others he was a skilled and efficient administrator, a man who was given a job to do and who took the actions necessary to its success. Once this essay isfinished, the thoughts of the writer will be well known, it will be upto the reader to make the final judgement. The background to the Reformation is long and complex, and is morethan a simple matter of a childish egotists desire to take what he hasbeen told he cannot have. Nor is the motivation as simple as apolitical need to secure the continuation of his line through the birthof a healthy son. Both of these were factors in Henrys thinking, butthey were not as simplistic as they have been portrayed. Henry was ascholar and had the capacity for intelligent, theoretical and theological thought. The Reformation was in part the end result of atheory of kingship based on the kingship of David in the Bible, and ona notion of imperium, that a king was the sole final arbiter of allmatters within his realm. Unfortunately, we do not have the available time or space to go into the causes of the Reformation in more detail. All that need concern the reader for the purpose of this study is that the Popes refusal to annul Henry VIIIs marriage to Catherine of Aragon (thereby invalidating the papal dispensation that had made the marriage legal inthe first place) led Henry to break with the Church of Rome and taketotal control of the church in England. The Church of England, as it became known, had the King at its head; he was the defender of the faith, and no foreign power could determine religious policy in his realm, just as it could not determine administrative policies or set taxation. There is a logical (if not theological) sense in this policy,and it was one that fitted with Henrys newfound theory of kingship. (i) The Reformation in General: A Legislative Revolution Henry was a king who ruled with parliament, and this makes analysis ofhis policies easier, since there is a clear legislative framework toalmost every reforming measure he undertook. Indeed, the parliamentthat enacted this legislation was dubbed the Reformation Parliament.It was through Parliament and the legal apparatus at his disposal thatHenry and Cromwell conducted the reformation of the Church, which wasto become Henrys church. The birth of the Reformation (at least in legal terms) came in the formof the Act of Restraint of Appeals (1533). It stated that as King ofEngland, Henry owed submission to no man, not even the Pope. The actproceeded on the basis that a king owed allegiance and obedience to Godand God alone. No earthly being could tell him how to interpret theScripture, or prevent him from annulling a marriage he had adjudgedsinful. In both theory and practice, it created an autonomous Church ofEngland, with the King at its head. The Act (as with almost alllegislation) was politically motivated, for (as its name implies) itbarred an English citizen from appealing to the Vatican against anydecision made by an English ecclesiastical court. The motivation forthis was obvious. It meant that if an English ecclesiastical courtruled that the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon wasinvalid, Catherine could not appeal to the pope. If she did, anyresponse would have no legal force within the Engli sh realm. Since theecclesiastical courts were now as much the kings courts as any otherlegal forum, they would dispense a decision in line with hisinterpretation of the law. This may seem tyrannical and corrupt tomodern eyes, but in Tudor England it made perfect sense. The courtsystem existed because the king was meant to dispense justice but couldnot hope to adjudicate every case himself. Personal intervention ofthis sort was impracticable. With this in mind, for a king to advisethe court of the correct decision was a constitutional act of theutmost legality. Part of the coronation oath was the preservation ofjustice; that is (in theory) all interference in a court case was; theking assuming duties he had previously sworn to perform. It is clear that dealing with his political and marital problems werefar more important to Henry and his government than reforming theChurch itself. The second key measure in the Henrician/Cromwellianreform programme was the Act of Succession (March 1534). The Actconfirmed the bastardy of Mary Tudor, (who had lost her title ofPrincess and was now referred to as the Lady Mary). Mary wasdisinherited and the Princess Elizabeth was named the kings truesuccessor. More importantly, the Act provided that any subject, if soordered, should swear an oath recognising its provisions. Most peoplecomplied without question, but both Thomas More and Bishop John Fisherrefused to take it. Both men paid for this allegiance to the Pope withtheir lives. The Princess Dowager (as Catherine of Aragon was nowdesignated), and her daughter also refused, but their relationship tothe Emperor restrained Henry, who left them to their own devices. It wasnt until later in 1534 (November) that the real changesbegan. The Act of Supremacy gave a legal, statutory definition of thekings position within the structure of this newly created Church ofEngland. It gave the king a statutory title of Supreme Head of theChurch of England and assigned the king all prerogatives to the saiddignity of supreme head of the same church belonging and appertaining.In effect, the pope was being displaced as the head of the church inEngland. Henry of course, had a different view. It was the kings ofEngland who had been displaced by the pope, based on spurious doctrinethat contradicted the Holy Scriptures. God had always intended that theking be master of all matters in his realm. That was why He selectedkings personally, putting them on the throne through his divine powers.His intervention at Bosworth Field had put the Tudors in control of thekingdom of England, and Henry was not about to let some bishop of Romeusurp his God-given authority. That would be to defy the will of God.Naturally, Henry was able to find theologians with concurring views.Richard Sampson, Bishop of Chichester wrote a treatise on the subjectthat made the very point Henry was making in the Act of Succession. Itsaid that The word of God is to obey the King, and not the Bishop ofRome.† Despite all of this, the Church of England remained an essentiallyCatholic church, since Henry had little interest in Protestantism.Indeed, many of the measures he did introduce of an evangelical naturewere later reversed. The Ten Articles of 1536 are a prime example ofHenrys attempts to steer a level course between the extremeCatholic/conservative and Anglican/evangelical wings of his new church.He was eager to keep it a broad church, but not willing to countenanceheresy (he burned papists and people who denied the sacraments withequal vigour). They were supposed to constitute a formulary for the newand improved Henrician church and were not without their controversies.For one thing, it only explicitly recognised three sacraments(baptism, penance and the Eucharist), where the Catholic Churchrecognised seven. Emphasis was laid upon the words of the Scriptures,and the merits of simple Christian life (something difficult torecognise in the grandiose magnificence of Renaissance royal co urts).It was not however, an anti-Catholic formulation as such. It did notcondemn the Mass, nor did it condemn the Catholic call for good works.It was a balancing act, with a little something for everybody, and Weirhas described it as a tentative move in an evangelical direction. Ifit was such a move, it was one that Henry soon reversed. The Act of SixArticles in 1539 resolved any latent ambiguity that existed in theEnglish church, returning it to a clearly Catholic structure. Clericalmarriage was condemned and the vows of chastity were now held to besacred and unbreakable, which put Archbishop Cranmer in an unfortunateposition as his marriage had been an open secret for some time. He wasundoubtedly not alone in finding himself in what was now a compromisingsituation, and it is somewhat ironic that Henry was enactinglegislation to combat illegal marriages. One thing of course, remainedunchanged; papal supremacy was not restored, nor could it be. Henry hadspent years espousing his ow n supremacy over the church, and it hadbeen the guiding principle behind his reign for the past decade. Evenif he had wanted to reverse what he had done and re-enter the CatholicChurch, it would be a political mistake of the highest order, and notone that he was prepared to make. Only one man could have dominion overEngland, and that man was its king. (ii) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: Royal Motives and a Welsh Perspective The Dissolution of the Monasteries was seen by some as an unwarrantedattack on a helpless class of people with no means to defendthemselves, and by others as a necessary purging of a corrupt andparasitical class of clergymen who served no pastoral or practicalpurpose. In reality, it was in the main, a land grab. There was anincreasing likelihood of war with France and Henry had gained fewfriends following Englands break with Rome. As the arch-pragmatist andchief minister Cromwell saw it, the monasteries were an untappedresource. Now that the king was overall arbiter of the churchsfuture, he had a legal authority over the monasteries that he had neverhad before. With this new ecclesiastical power came a desire toexercise it. Cromwell managed to push through an extremely efficientprogramme of dissolution, despite the objections of the kings newbride, Jane Seymour. In four short years, all five-hundred andsixty-three religious houses would be closed, and their inmatespensioned off. This freed up an enormous amount of land and finances which, naturallybecame the property of the Crown. With the injection of the abbeysrevenues into the treasury, the royal income doubled. This new moneywould help to finance Henrys extensive (and expensive) buildingprojects and the acquisition of new property (among other things). TheCrown also annexed monastic lands worth  £120, 000 a year, a massiveamount of money at the time, which amounted to one fifth of thekingdoms landed wealth. The Reformation was a time when the king had no significant standingarmy, despite the threat from the Catholic powers of France and Spainand the not unlikely threat of civil rebellion. To offset this risk,Henry redistributed a third of this new land to secure the loyalty ofimportant men, men who he would come to depend on when the northerupted in rebellion in 1536-7. Whilst the church held one quarter of all Welsh land it was notprolific in its membership. In 1500, Cistercian monasteries averagedonly six monks. Augustinian monasteries averaged five monks, with theBenedictine order averaging a mere three monks a monastery. Theso-called Great Abbey at Tintern only had thirteen monks. All in all,the dissolution displaced two hundred and fifty monks, nuns and friars,not an extreme number. Indeed, Henry could easily have described them as a minor casualty that benefited the whole nation. The effect on the people of Wales was somewhat more serious, as thepoor relied on the benefactory nature of the Welsh monasteries andpriories. This was a country where fifty per cent of the populationsuffered from malnutrition and an equal percentage of newborn babiesfailed to survive their first year. A lifespan of thirty-five years wasalso not uncommon, which is low, even for medieval Europe. The sheerpoverty and susceptibility to illness (a result of their malnutrition)of the Welsh working class made them dependent on the principalitysforty-six monasteries for alms and food. What made this worse was thatall of the Welsh monasteries were relatively poor, and so all of themwere dissolved in the initial cull of the lesser monasteries. In onefell swoop, Welsh monasticism was ended; for the Welsh there was noadjustment period, no breathing space; all of their monasteries went atonce. With the monasteries gone, a vital source of relief was cut off,a fact that no doubt hit hard in poor h omes throughout Wales andengendered a lot of distaste for the Tudor regime. A dynasty that theWelsh people had supported at its inception was taking away a vitalsource of support. It was to get worse too, as the new Church ofEngland cracked down on idolatry and (in Welsh eyes) took an axe to thepeoples heritage. (iii) The Idolatry Crackdown: A Welsh Perspective As has been stated above, the Reformation began as an essentiallypolitical process, resolving the question of absolute dominion andwhether the church was to be ruled from Rome or by the divinelyappointed sovereign of the nation in question. However, as the TenArticles of 1536 demonstrates, the Reformation did incorporate somereform of the church into its programme. A part of this thatparticularly affected Wales was the crusade against idolatry andimages. In 1538, Thomas Cromwell issued an Injunction ordering every parishchurch to stock an English bible to be made available for all whowished to read it and interpret the Scriptures themselves. As we willsee below, this was of little benefit to the Welsh. In the same year, asimilar Injunction ordered that every shrine in the country was to bedestroyed. This is where the popular image of thugs running around thecountry smashing up churches comes from, and it is a view that is notwithout some justification. As always, Cromwell was very effective, andeven the shrine of Thomas Becket (one of the countrys holiestpilgrimage places) was lost as a result of the zealous evangelicaldestruction squads. This had a particularly damaging effect on Wales,where cultural-religious relics were highly venerated. In a move thataccorded perfectly with the Reformations attempt to completelyassimilate the Welsh nation and culture, the principalitys relics wereruthlessly swept away, with almost nothing (if any thing) surviving thecull. Village processions would often have sacred images carried inthem, these priceless relics were lost. One such relic was the healing cup of Nant Eos. This sacred relicwas in reality no more than a cracked piece of wood, but to the Welshit had mystical powers. Whilst such a phrase sounds laughable to modernears, there is little doubt that the Welsh believed in the cupsproperties. Not only did it have remarkable healing properties, itpossessed the ability to cleanse your soul, keeping you out of hell andin extreme cases, it was believed to bring you back from that foulplace of purgatory. To the Welsh therefore, this was not merely avenerated image, but a physical key to salvation and a medical toolthat went far beyond contemporary healing techniques. As we have seen,Tudor Wales was a grim place and to remove relics such as the cup ofNant Eos was to eliminate hope itself for many of the people whobelieved in them. At a time when the Acts of Union were doing theirvery best to dilute and destroy the very basics of Welsh culture, thepolicies of the Reformation were providing a complementar y service inthe field of religious relics. (i) Why unify? The Welsh Problem The Welsh problem had been of concern to Henry VIII for some time bythe coming of the Reformation. Even though he had never been anyfarther west than Bristol, he was aware that the country which hadhelped his father to the throne was an alien one, out of step with therest of his realm. In a period of heightened nationalism, thedifferences between the Principality and its ruler were brought into amuch sharper focus, and became more clearly defined as a threat to theuniformity of the Henrician imperium. The Welsh language was an ugly tongue when compared to the Latin,French and Greek he had learned at the hands of his tutors, and it hadan alien sound to it. To a paranoid man, it could also be construed asthe ideal way to foment rebellion; after all, it is hard to root outtraitors when you cannot understand what they are saying It wasnt just the Welsh language that concerned the king. Walesstill had a distinct legal system, based on Gaelic traditions whichwere alien to a country based on Norman ideals. The Welsh system was sodifferent that it did not even recognise the English distinctionbetween civil and criminal cases; one of the central tenets of thecommon law system. Outrageously to a modern western audience,manslaughter and deliberate homicide were not even considered realcrimes. In England, such acts were offences against the community, tobe judged in royal courts, and nothing could alter the prosecutorsright to pursue a criminal case. In Wales (and Ireland), it was the kinwho had been wronged, and they who sought a remedy, and as in somemodern cultures, the family could seek financial reparations. None of this was, strictly speaking, a threat to society, or the soundadministration of the Principality. What was (or at least should havebeen) a genuine cause for central concern was that the conquest had notmanaged to eliminate the operation of the law of galanas, a lawregarding blood feuds and the appropriate resolution of such disputes.The principle of compensation was fundamental to the justice of thefeud, and it is not impossible that compensation could have included alife in return for a life. As we have seen above, tolerance was not one of Henry VIIIs qualities.He did not recognise alternative forms and systems of justice,especially when they were operating in his imperium. The root cause ofthe Reformation was his determination to see that his law was the law,and that no legal system, ecclesiastical or civil, could co-exist withhis own. Henry himself said that the Welsh laws were sinister usagesand customs used by the lords of the March for thraldom and tyranny. Of a more practical concern, there was a serious problem with law andorder throughout Wales and it was this that was the root cause ofHenrys acts of union. As Henry himself said in 1520: realms withoutjustice be but tyrannies and robberies Wales was not as much of aproblem as the Marches, which were a patchwork of autonomous fiefdoms,where lawlessness and violence abounded. The main problem with theMarcher lordships was centuries old. The constant threat of rebellionin Wales had led to the Marches becoming a buffer zone between thePrincipality and England, a medieval Rhineland, designed to keep theWelsh wolf from the door. To combat the Welsh threat, extensive powershad been delegated to the Marcher lords, powers that had never beenreclaimed. Within any one lordship, the lord had legislative power and,as Susan Brigden has said, they possessed virtual judicialomnicompetence within their own domain. There were a total of onehundred and thirty-seven separate jurisdictions where the king s writsimply did not run. They were notorious hideouts for outlaws andcriminals, a situation not helped by the fact that a murderer couldsimply cross state lines into another lordship to avoid punishment.For serious, career criminals the Marches were a safe haven that theking could simply no longer permit. The situation is believed to havebeen so bad that J.A. Williamson described Wales as wild anduntroubled by Parliaments laws, or by any law at all, being in aworse state of crime and disorder than England had been in the civilwars. For a king so obsessed with sovereignty and control over hisown domains, reform of the Marches and the principality as a whole wassimply a matter of time. All of these things, coupled with thetheoretical imperative that England was an empire, ensured that theActs of Union were not a long time coming. (ii) The Acts of Union: Aims and Effects Before the Acts are examined, one thing must be made clear; Henrywanted control of Wales, he did not want to set up an effective Welshgovernment, capable of managing its own affairs and getting a grip onlaw and order. He was not interested in bolstering the Welshadministration by giving them the tools to get the job done. What hewanted was a full scale incorporation of the Principality into theEnglish sovereignty. Once this was accomplished, the traditionalEnglish mechanisms could see to law and order in the tried and testedways. As has been exhaustively discussed above, the biggest problem wasthat the very nature of the Marcher lordships hindered the maintenanceof law and order. Therefore, they were a primary target of the 1536 Actwhich saw to their abolition. Some were combined with the unshiredWelsh lands to create the new counties of Monmouth, Brecon, Radnor,Montgomery and Denbigh (in 1543 Monmouth was transferred to England andtwo new counties of Glamorgan and Pembroke were crea ted). The rest ofthe lordships were incorporated into adjacent English counties. Crimescommitted in Marcher lordships could not be avoided by fleeing toanother jurisdiction; they were to be tried in English courts. Thepractice of cymortha, the imposition of obligatory gifts (a majorsource of revenue for Marcher lords) was forbidden. Any Marcherlordship official deemed guilty of corruption or oppression could betried and punished by the Council of Wales, whose powers wereincreased. The patchwork of anarchy had been abolished. Welsh law was another target of the 1536 Act. Henrys distrust of alienjurisdictions could lead to only one natural outcome; English law wasestablished as the law of the land throughout Wales. There were to beno more dual systems, with Welsh and English law operating side byside; from 1534 onwards, the Welsh legal system was no more differentto the national system than was the Sussex or Derbyshire legal system.English rules of tenure and inheritance replaced older Welsh customs.There was only one law in Wales: the Kings law. Of course, the change in legal structure would have meant nothingwithout the mechanisms and means to enforce it. Courts of greatsessions and Justices of the Peace were introduced to bring the Englishcommon law to Wales. The Council of Wales (which sat in Ludlow castlein Shropshire) was now the equivalent of a Welsh Privy Council andCourt of Star Chamber combined, and under the leadership of BishopRowland Lee, was responsible for enforcing the law in Wales (below, wewill examine the success and question the methods of Bishop Lee). To ensure the erosion of the Welsh language, English was to be thenational legal language of Wales. All court hearings were to beconducted in English (which caused obvious problems) and all publicofficials in Wales had to speak English. This was a clever move, itwedded the Welsh gentry to the Crown, anglicising them and driving afirm wedge between them and the Welsh lower classes. Any student ofhistory knows that a revolution needs the support of the middleclasses; the Act of Union ensured there was no benefit to suchco-operation. The Acts of 1536 and 1543 were not all bad news for the people ofWales. Indeed, they had some very tangible benefits. For one thing, thelegal distinctions between Henrys English and Welsh subjects wereeliminated. The Welsh were no longer second class citizens, they couldexpect the same level of due process as their English neighbours anddecades-long impediments to the acquisition and inheritance of landwere therefore removed. Whilst Welsh courts operated on Englishprinciples they were not answerable to Westminster but to theChanceries in Caernarfon and Carmarthen; thereby giving the Welshcourts an autonomy granted to no other section of the kingdom. Mostimportantly to modern eyes (although the reaction at the time wasprobably fairly moderate), the 1536 Act entitled Wales torepresentation at Parliament for the first time in its history. In 1543it sent twenty-seven MPs to Westminster. Clearly, the incorporationinto England was total, with Wales deriving the benefits as well as thecultu ral assaults of a full-blown union with England. Whilst somehistorians claim that the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) created a unionbetween the two countries, this is somewhat short-sighted. Rhuddlan putWales under the auspices of the English kings, but it made Wales acolony, where its own inhabitants were left to their own devices andtreated as less than their English counterparts. Whilst the acts of1536 and 1543 were a clear attempt to assimilate and dissipate theWelsh culture, it also took positive steps to bring the Welsh into thefold, giving them rights they had never before enjoyed. In Henryscase, the lord giveth at the same time as the lord taketh away.Whatever the pros and cons of Henrician reforms, the Welsh language isstill alive over four hundred and fifty years later, and the Welshcontinue to be proud of their culture and their history. Rowland Lee was appointed president of the Council of Wales as partof a move to gain greater central control of the realm. In Ireland, theEarl of Kildare was replaced as governor by Sir William Skeffington (amilitary captain) and Lord Dacre was replaced as warden of the westmarches in the north by the Earl of Cumberland. All of this happened inthe space of a single month. As has been outlined above, Wales was ananarchic area, in need of a firm hand. Lee was to be that hand, andover the next nine years he conducted what some historians wouldcharacterise as a reign of terror. Like any sensible person, and in line with the thoughts of hissovereign, Lee was alive to the possibility that a Catholic nation suchas France or Spain was likely to invade. Lee took active measures todefend the coasts, recruiting soldiers and hunting out resources torepair the royal castles which had been falling into disrepair. At thetime of their construction, Welsh castles such as those built by EdwardI were designed as Welsh outposts, military strongholds in a freshlyconquered and belligerent colony. By the 1530s, the age ofcastle-building was over. Having mentioned above that Henry VIII hadused the monastic income to fund his extensive building projects; thismay surprise the reader of this piece. But do not be surprised. HenryVIII was a palace builder. He wanted large, glamorous and opulentresidences to relax in and house a Renaissance court that was worthy ofthe name. The type of uncomfortable and old-fashioned castle thatEdward I had deemed necessary in the thirteenth century was deemed ananachronism. They were also hugely expensive. This meant that Lee hadto make do with the castles he already had and hope that there wasntan invasion. Since his prayers were answered in this respect, we cannotjudge Lees success in this area. All we can say is that he seems tohave taken all the precautions a reasonable man could have taken. Lees greatest success and the biggest anvil dragging his reputationdown is his policy regarding law and order. This essay has discussed atsome length the lawlessness and turbulence that abounded in the WelshMarches prior to the arrival of Bishop Lee. His reports were in partresponsible for the reforms found in the 1536 Act, an act which gavethe Council of Wales the means to take Welsh matters in hand. Itensured that the patchwork of private judicial enclaves and palatinatesbecame a large English common law blanket under Lee’s jurisdiction.There is no doubt that Lee earned his nickname of the hanging bishop.Indeed, his entire policy on law and order was to hang people, the morethe better. Hanging was to be done frequently and publicly, especiallyif the criminal in question was of a more respectable background thanthe common criminal. Davies credits Lee with saying that executing agentleman was better than dispatching a hundred petty wretches andclaims he boasted that he had exe cuted four of the best blood inShropshire. Even if this is true, it is a sound policy. One of themajor scourges of the Wars of the Roses had been the major families andtheir constant liberty-taking where the law was concerned. Greatfamilies would wage private wars and other nobles would keep a hold ontheir territories by fear and licensing thugs and criminals to run riotthroughout their lands. The Marcher lordships were no different. Therewas little respect for the law. One way to instil a healthy fearfulrespect of the law was to prove that no-one was above it. If a wealthylanded gentleman could swing from the gallows for a crime then anyonecould. This author is no fan of capital punishment and would point tothe fact that people still kill each other in states where the deathpenalty exists. But in the case of Bishop Lee, it would be incrediblydifficult to argue that his policy of hanging did not act as adeterrent. The Marches and the rest of the principality quickly fellinto line. T he chronicler Elis Gruffyd claims that Lee executed fivethousand men in six years and this would certainly accord with theprinciple ascribed to Lee that it was better to hang a hundred innocentmen than let a guilty one escape the noose. If Lee really did despatchfive thousand souls to meet their maker, then it is easy to see whyWales became a more orderly region under his rule. In 1538, the manhimself said that order and quiet such as is now in England prevailedall over Wales. A key question when determining Lees success is the extent to whichLee benefited from the reforms of 1536, and whether the success of Leewas really the success of administrative reform as imposed byWestminster. After all, the key thread running through the criticism of the Marcherlordships is that they lacked a uniform legal system and an effectiveand unified administrative machine. The Act of 1536 gave Wales boththese things and therefore, the argument could be made, brought orderto the Principality. Before this argument is debunked, it is necessaryto give it a full airing by going over exactly how the Act aided BishopLees pursuit of order. Much was made in the previous section of the legal, jurisdictional andpolitical patchwork that existed in the Marches. Naturally this causedserious administrative problems for Bishop Lee. The extensive rightsgranted to the Marcher lords in the previous century still existed,even if the political and military justification for such a delegationof royal authority no longer did. This left the Council prettypowerless where the lordships were concerned, and meant that any reformLee undertook had to be confined to the Principality. Not that that wasan easy task, for the Principality had, in many places, Welsh andEnglish law operating side by side. These jurisdictional problems weresolved in one fell swoop by the 1536 Act; Lee went from having littleor no jurisdiction to having legal authority over all of Wales. Withoutthis reform of Marcher and Principality law, Lees task would have beenmuch more difficult than it was. Lee now had the power to punish History of the Reformation in Wales History of the Reformation in Wales The Reformation is one of the most studied, most discussed and heavily analysed periods of English history, arousing controversy and interest through the works of academics and the private study of interested individuals alike. J.A. Froude called it [T]he greatest incident in English history, but it would be just as easy to call it an act of sacrilege motivated by a selfish tyrant, interested more in perpetuating his own line than fulfilling his self-proclaimed role as defender of the faith. No matter the differences of historical opinion, its importance cannot be denied, and nor can its impact. Yet few authors have deigned to focus on the impact of this turbulent course of events on the principality of Wales, nor has there been much discussion of the role of its governor, Rowland Lee. This essay will do exactly that. It will begin with an analysis of the Reformation Acts as this author has dubbed them, the statutes enacted by Henry with the specific aim ofremaking the English church in his image. These measures affected thecountry as a whole, and any aspects peculiar to Wales will be examined. The essay will continue with a detailed look at the Welsh Acts,†statutes often called (wrongly) Acts of Union. Obviously, their effectis specific to Wales, and the attitudes of the Welsh people will be especially noteworthy here. Finally, the scope of the inquiry will turn to the man who implemented those policies as President of the Council of Wales: Rowland Lee, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield. To some he was a blood-thirsty man,the hanging bishop who instigated a reign of terror. To others he was a skilled and efficient administrator, a man who was given a job to do and who took the actions necessary to its success. Once this essay isfinished, the thoughts of the writer will be well known, it will be upto the reader to make the final judgement. The background to the Reformation is long and complex, and is morethan a simple matter of a childish egotists desire to take what he hasbeen told he cannot have. Nor is the motivation as simple as apolitical need to secure the continuation of his line through the birthof a healthy son. Both of these were factors in Henrys thinking, butthey were not as simplistic as they have been portrayed. Henry was ascholar and had the capacity for intelligent, theoretical and theological thought. The Reformation was in part the end result of atheory of kingship based on the kingship of David in the Bible, and ona notion of imperium, that a king was the sole final arbiter of allmatters within his realm. Unfortunately, we do not have the available time or space to go into the causes of the Reformation in more detail. All that need concern the reader for the purpose of this study is that the Popes refusal to annul Henry VIIIs marriage to Catherine of Aragon (thereby invalidating the papal dispensation that had made the marriage legal inthe first place) led Henry to break with the Church of Rome and taketotal control of the church in England. The Church of England, as it became known, had the King at its head; he was the defender of the faith, and no foreign power could determine religious policy in his realm, just as it could not determine administrative policies or set taxation. There is a logical (if not theological) sense in this policy,and it was one that fitted with Henrys newfound theory of kingship. (i) The Reformation in General: A Legislative Revolution Henry was a king who ruled with parliament, and this makes analysis ofhis policies easier, since there is a clear legislative framework toalmost every reforming measure he undertook. Indeed, the parliamentthat enacted this legislation was dubbed the Reformation Parliament.It was through Parliament and the legal apparatus at his disposal thatHenry and Cromwell conducted the reformation of the Church, which wasto become Henrys church. The birth of the Reformation (at least in legal terms) came in the formof the Act of Restraint of Appeals (1533). It stated that as King ofEngland, Henry owed submission to no man, not even the Pope. The actproceeded on the basis that a king owed allegiance and obedience to Godand God alone. No earthly being could tell him how to interpret theScripture, or prevent him from annulling a marriage he had adjudgedsinful. In both theory and practice, it created an autonomous Church ofEngland, with the King at its head. The Act (as with almost alllegislation) was politically motivated, for (as its name implies) itbarred an English citizen from appealing to the Vatican against anydecision made by an English ecclesiastical court. The motivation forthis was obvious. It meant that if an English ecclesiastical courtruled that the marriage between the King and Catherine of Aragon wasinvalid, Catherine could not appeal to the pope. If she did, anyresponse would have no legal force within the Engli sh realm. Since theecclesiastical courts were now as much the kings courts as any otherlegal forum, they would dispense a decision in line with hisinterpretation of the law. This may seem tyrannical and corrupt tomodern eyes, but in Tudor England it made perfect sense. The courtsystem existed because the king was meant to dispense justice but couldnot hope to adjudicate every case himself. Personal intervention ofthis sort was impracticable. With this in mind, for a king to advisethe court of the correct decision was a constitutional act of theutmost legality. Part of the coronation oath was the preservation ofjustice; that is (in theory) all interference in a court case was; theking assuming duties he had previously sworn to perform. It is clear that dealing with his political and marital problems werefar more important to Henry and his government than reforming theChurch itself. The second key measure in the Henrician/Cromwellianreform programme was the Act of Succession (March 1534). The Actconfirmed the bastardy of Mary Tudor, (who had lost her title ofPrincess and was now referred to as the Lady Mary). Mary wasdisinherited and the Princess Elizabeth was named the kings truesuccessor. More importantly, the Act provided that any subject, if soordered, should swear an oath recognising its provisions. Most peoplecomplied without question, but both Thomas More and Bishop John Fisherrefused to take it. Both men paid for this allegiance to the Pope withtheir lives. The Princess Dowager (as Catherine of Aragon was nowdesignated), and her daughter also refused, but their relationship tothe Emperor restrained Henry, who left them to their own devices. It wasnt until later in 1534 (November) that the real changesbegan. The Act of Supremacy gave a legal, statutory definition of thekings position within the structure of this newly created Church ofEngland. It gave the king a statutory title of Supreme Head of theChurch of England and assigned the king all prerogatives to the saiddignity of supreme head of the same church belonging and appertaining.In effect, the pope was being displaced as the head of the church inEngland. Henry of course, had a different view. It was the kings ofEngland who had been displaced by the pope, based on spurious doctrinethat contradicted the Holy Scriptures. God had always intended that theking be master of all matters in his realm. That was why He selectedkings personally, putting them on the throne through his divine powers.His intervention at Bosworth Field had put the Tudors in control of thekingdom of England, and Henry was not about to let some bishop of Romeusurp his God-given authority. That would be to defy the will of God.Naturally, Henry was able to find theologians with concurring views.Richard Sampson, Bishop of Chichester wrote a treatise on the subjectthat made the very point Henry was making in the Act of Succession. Itsaid that The word of God is to obey the King, and not the Bishop ofRome.† Despite all of this, the Church of England remained an essentiallyCatholic church, since Henry had little interest in Protestantism.Indeed, many of the measures he did introduce of an evangelical naturewere later reversed. The Ten Articles of 1536 are a prime example ofHenrys attempts to steer a level course between the extremeCatholic/conservative and Anglican/evangelical wings of his new church.He was eager to keep it a broad church, but not willing to countenanceheresy (he burned papists and people who denied the sacraments withequal vigour). They were supposed to constitute a formulary for the newand improved Henrician church and were not without their controversies.For one thing, it only explicitly recognised three sacraments(baptism, penance and the Eucharist), where the Catholic Churchrecognised seven. Emphasis was laid upon the words of the Scriptures,and the merits of simple Christian life (something difficult torecognise in the grandiose magnificence of Renaissance royal co urts).It was not however, an anti-Catholic formulation as such. It did notcondemn the Mass, nor did it condemn the Catholic call for good works.It was a balancing act, with a little something for everybody, and Weirhas described it as a tentative move in an evangelical direction. Ifit was such a move, it was one that Henry soon reversed. The Act of SixArticles in 1539 resolved any latent ambiguity that existed in theEnglish church, returning it to a clearly Catholic structure. Clericalmarriage was condemned and the vows of chastity were now held to besacred and unbreakable, which put Archbishop Cranmer in an unfortunateposition as his marriage had been an open secret for some time. He wasundoubtedly not alone in finding himself in what was now a compromisingsituation, and it is somewhat ironic that Henry was enactinglegislation to combat illegal marriages. One thing of course, remainedunchanged; papal supremacy was not restored, nor could it be. Henry hadspent years espousing his ow n supremacy over the church, and it hadbeen the guiding principle behind his reign for the past decade. Evenif he had wanted to reverse what he had done and re-enter the CatholicChurch, it would be a political mistake of the highest order, and notone that he was prepared to make. Only one man could have dominion overEngland, and that man was its king. (ii) The Dissolution of the Monasteries: Royal Motives and a Welsh Perspective The Dissolution of the Monasteries was seen by some as an unwarrantedattack on a helpless class of people with no means to defendthemselves, and by others as a necessary purging of a corrupt andparasitical class of clergymen who served no pastoral or practicalpurpose. In reality, it was in the main, a land grab. There was anincreasing likelihood of war with France and Henry had gained fewfriends following Englands break with Rome. As the arch-pragmatist andchief minister Cromwell saw it, the monasteries were an untappedresource. Now that the king was overall arbiter of the churchsfuture, he had a legal authority over the monasteries that he had neverhad before. With this new ecclesiastical power came a desire toexercise it. Cromwell managed to push through an extremely efficientprogramme of dissolution, despite the objections of the kings newbride, Jane Seymour. In four short years, all five-hundred andsixty-three religious houses would be closed, and their inmatespensioned off. This freed up an enormous amount of land and finances which, naturallybecame the property of the Crown. With the injection of the abbeysrevenues into the treasury, the royal income doubled. This new moneywould help to finance Henrys extensive (and expensive) buildingprojects and the acquisition of new property (among other things). TheCrown also annexed monastic lands worth  £120, 000 a year, a massiveamount of money at the time, which amounted to one fifth of thekingdoms landed wealth. The Reformation was a time when the king had no significant standingarmy, despite the threat from the Catholic powers of France and Spainand the not unlikely threat of civil rebellion. To offset this risk,Henry redistributed a third of this new land to secure the loyalty ofimportant men, men who he would come to depend on when the northerupted in rebellion in 1536-7. Whilst the church held one quarter of all Welsh land it was notprolific in its membership. In 1500, Cistercian monasteries averagedonly six monks. Augustinian monasteries averaged five monks, with theBenedictine order averaging a mere three monks a monastery. Theso-called Great Abbey at Tintern only had thirteen monks. All in all,the dissolution displaced two hundred and fifty monks, nuns and friars,not an extreme number. Indeed, Henry could easily have described them as a minor casualty that benefited the whole nation. The effect on the people of Wales was somewhat more serious, as thepoor relied on the benefactory nature of the Welsh monasteries andpriories. This was a country where fifty per cent of the populationsuffered from malnutrition and an equal percentage of newborn babiesfailed to survive their first year. A lifespan of thirty-five years wasalso not uncommon, which is low, even for medieval Europe. The sheerpoverty and susceptibility to illness (a result of their malnutrition)of the Welsh working class made them dependent on the principalitysforty-six monasteries for alms and food. What made this worse was thatall of the Welsh monasteries were relatively poor, and so all of themwere dissolved in the initial cull of the lesser monasteries. In onefell swoop, Welsh monasticism was ended; for the Welsh there was noadjustment period, no breathing space; all of their monasteries went atonce. With the monasteries gone, a vital source of relief was cut off,a fact that no doubt hit hard in poor h omes throughout Wales andengendered a lot of distaste for the Tudor regime. A dynasty that theWelsh people had supported at its inception was taking away a vitalsource of support. It was to get worse too, as the new Church ofEngland cracked down on idolatry and (in Welsh eyes) took an axe to thepeoples heritage. (iii) The Idolatry Crackdown: A Welsh Perspective As has been stated above, the Reformation began as an essentiallypolitical process, resolving the question of absolute dominion andwhether the church was to be ruled from Rome or by the divinelyappointed sovereign of the nation in question. However, as the TenArticles of 1536 demonstrates, the Reformation did incorporate somereform of the church into its programme. A part of this thatparticularly affected Wales was the crusade against idolatry andimages. In 1538, Thomas Cromwell issued an Injunction ordering every parishchurch to stock an English bible to be made available for all whowished to read it and interpret the Scriptures themselves. As we willsee below, this was of little benefit to the Welsh. In the same year, asimilar Injunction ordered that every shrine in the country was to bedestroyed. This is where the popular image of thugs running around thecountry smashing up churches comes from, and it is a view that is notwithout some justification. As always, Cromwell was very effective, andeven the shrine of Thomas Becket (one of the countrys holiestpilgrimage places) was lost as a result of the zealous evangelicaldestruction squads. This had a particularly damaging effect on Wales,where cultural-religious relics were highly venerated. In a move thataccorded perfectly with the Reformations attempt to completelyassimilate the Welsh nation and culture, the principalitys relics wereruthlessly swept away, with almost nothing (if any thing) surviving thecull. Village processions would often have sacred images carried inthem, these priceless relics were lost. One such relic was the healing cup of Nant Eos. This sacred relicwas in reality no more than a cracked piece of wood, but to the Welshit had mystical powers. Whilst such a phrase sounds laughable to modernears, there is little doubt that the Welsh believed in the cupsproperties. Not only did it have remarkable healing properties, itpossessed the ability to cleanse your soul, keeping you out of hell andin extreme cases, it was believed to bring you back from that foulplace of purgatory. To the Welsh therefore, this was not merely avenerated image, but a physical key to salvation and a medical toolthat went far beyond contemporary healing techniques. As we have seen,Tudor Wales was a grim place and to remove relics such as the cup ofNant Eos was to eliminate hope itself for many of the people whobelieved in them. At a time when the Acts of Union were doing theirvery best to dilute and destroy the very basics of Welsh culture, thepolicies of the Reformation were providing a complementar y service inthe field of religious relics. (i) Why unify? The Welsh Problem The Welsh problem had been of concern to Henry VIII for some time bythe coming of the Reformation. Even though he had never been anyfarther west than Bristol, he was aware that the country which hadhelped his father to the throne was an alien one, out of step with therest of his realm. In a period of heightened nationalism, thedifferences between the Principality and its ruler were brought into amuch sharper focus, and became more clearly defined as a threat to theuniformity of the Henrician imperium. The Welsh language was an ugly tongue when compared to the Latin,French and Greek he had learned at the hands of his tutors, and it hadan alien sound to it. To a paranoid man, it could also be construed asthe ideal way to foment rebellion; after all, it is hard to root outtraitors when you cannot understand what they are saying It wasnt just the Welsh language that concerned the king. Walesstill had a distinct legal system, based on Gaelic traditions whichwere alien to a country based on Norman ideals. The Welsh system was sodifferent that it did not even recognise the English distinctionbetween civil and criminal cases; one of the central tenets of thecommon law system. Outrageously to a modern western audience,manslaughter and deliberate homicide were not even considered realcrimes. In England, such acts were offences against the community, tobe judged in royal courts, and nothing could alter the prosecutorsright to pursue a criminal case. In Wales (and Ireland), it was the kinwho had been wronged, and they who sought a remedy, and as in somemodern cultures, the family could seek financial reparations. None of this was, strictly speaking, a threat to society, or the soundadministration of the Principality. What was (or at least should havebeen) a genuine cause for central concern was that the conquest had notmanaged to eliminate the operation of the law of galanas, a lawregarding blood feuds and the appropriate resolution of such disputes.The principle of compensation was fundamental to the justice of thefeud, and it is not impossible that compensation could have included alife in return for a life. As we have seen above, tolerance was not one of Henry VIIIs qualities.He did not recognise alternative forms and systems of justice,especially when they were operating in his imperium. The root cause ofthe Reformation was his determination to see that his law was the law,and that no legal system, ecclesiastical or civil, could co-exist withhis own. Henry himself said that the Welsh laws were sinister usagesand customs used by the lords of the March for thraldom and tyranny. Of a more practical concern, there was a serious problem with law andorder throughout Wales and it was this that was the root cause ofHenrys acts of union. As Henry himself said in 1520: realms withoutjustice be but tyrannies and robberies Wales was not as much of aproblem as the Marches, which were a patchwork of autonomous fiefdoms,where lawlessness and violence abounded. The main problem with theMarcher lordships was centuries old. The constant threat of rebellionin Wales had led to the Marches becoming a buffer zone between thePrincipality and England, a medieval Rhineland, designed to keep theWelsh wolf from the door. To combat the Welsh threat, extensive powershad been delegated to the Marcher lords, powers that had never beenreclaimed. Within any one lordship, the lord had legislative power and,as Susan Brigden has said, they possessed virtual judicialomnicompetence within their own domain. There were a total of onehundred and thirty-seven separate jurisdictions where the king s writsimply did not run. They were notorious hideouts for outlaws andcriminals, a situation not helped by the fact that a murderer couldsimply cross state lines into another lordship to avoid punishment.For serious, career criminals the Marches were a safe haven that theking could simply no longer permit. The situation is believed to havebeen so bad that J.A. Williamson described Wales as wild anduntroubled by Parliaments laws, or by any law at all, being in aworse state of crime and disorder than England had been in the civilwars. For a king so obsessed with sovereignty and control over hisown domains, reform of the Marches and the principality as a whole wassimply a matter of time. All of these things, coupled with thetheoretical imperative that England was an empire, ensured that theActs of Union were not a long time coming. (ii) The Acts of Union: Aims and Effects Before the Acts are examined, one thing must be made clear; Henrywanted control of Wales, he did not want to set up an effective Welshgovernment, capable of managing its own affairs and getting a grip onlaw and order. He was not interested in bolstering the Welshadministration by giving them the tools to get the job done. What hewanted was a full scale incorporation of the Principality into theEnglish sovereignty. Once this was accomplished, the traditionalEnglish mechanisms could see to law and order in the tried and testedways. As has been exhaustively discussed above, the biggest problem wasthat the very nature of the Marcher lordships hindered the maintenanceof law and order. Therefore, they were a primary target of the 1536 Actwhich saw to their abolition. Some were combined with the unshiredWelsh lands to create the new counties of Monmouth, Brecon, Radnor,Montgomery and Denbigh (in 1543 Monmouth was transferred to England andtwo new counties of Glamorgan and Pembroke were crea ted). The rest ofthe lordships were incorporated into adjacent English counties. Crimescommitted in Marcher lordships could not be avoided by fleeing toanother jurisdiction; they were to be tried in English courts. Thepractice of cymortha, the imposition of obligatory gifts (a majorsource of revenue for Marcher lords) was forbidden. Any Marcherlordship official deemed guilty of corruption or oppression could betried and punished by the Council of Wales, whose powers wereincreased. The patchwork of anarchy had been abolished. Welsh law was another target of the 1536 Act. Henrys distrust of alienjurisdictions could lead to only one natural outcome; English law wasestablished as the law of the land throughout Wales. There were to beno more dual systems, with Welsh and English law operating side byside; from 1534 onwards, the Welsh legal system was no more differentto the national system than was the Sussex or Derbyshire legal system.English rules of tenure and inheritance replaced older Welsh customs.There was only one law in Wales: the Kings law. Of course, the change in legal structure would have meant nothingwithout the mechanisms and means to enforce it. Courts of greatsessions and Justices of the Peace were introduced to bring the Englishcommon law to Wales. The Council of Wales (which sat in Ludlow castlein Shropshire) was now the equivalent of a Welsh Privy Council andCourt of Star Chamber combined, and under the leadership of BishopRowland Lee, was responsible for enforcing the law in Wales (below, wewill examine the success and question the methods of Bishop Lee). To ensure the erosion of the Welsh language, English was to be thenational legal language of Wales. All court hearings were to beconducted in English (which caused obvious problems) and all publicofficials in Wales had to speak English. This was a clever move, itwedded the Welsh gentry to the Crown, anglicising them and driving afirm wedge between them and the Welsh lower classes. Any student ofhistory knows that a revolution needs the support of the middleclasses; the Act of Union ensured there was no benefit to suchco-operation. The Acts of 1536 and 1543 were not all bad news for the people ofWales. Indeed, they had some very tangible benefits. For one thing, thelegal distinctions between Henrys English and Welsh subjects wereeliminated. The Welsh were no longer second class citizens, they couldexpect the same level of due process as their English neighbours anddecades-long impediments to the acquisition and inheritance of landwere therefore removed. Whilst Welsh courts operated on Englishprinciples they were not answerable to Westminster but to theChanceries in Caernarfon and Carmarthen; thereby giving the Welshcourts an autonomy granted to no other section of the kingdom. Mostimportantly to modern eyes (although the reaction at the time wasprobably fairly moderate), the 1536 Act entitled Wales torepresentation at Parliament for the first time in its history. In 1543it sent twenty-seven MPs to Westminster. Clearly, the incorporationinto England was total, with Wales deriving the benefits as well as thecultu ral assaults of a full-blown union with England. Whilst somehistorians claim that the Statute of Rhuddlan (1284) created a unionbetween the two countries, this is somewhat short-sighted. Rhuddlan putWales under the auspices of the English kings, but it made Wales acolony, where its own inhabitants were left to their own devices andtreated as less than their English counterparts. Whilst the acts of1536 and 1543 were a clear attempt to assimilate and dissipate theWelsh culture, it also took positive steps to bring the Welsh into thefold, giving them rights they had never before enjoyed. In Henryscase, the lord giveth at the same time as the lord taketh away.Whatever the pros and cons of Henrician reforms, the Welsh language isstill alive over four hundred and fifty years later, and the Welshcontinue to be proud of their culture and their history. Rowland Lee was appointed president of the Council of Wales as partof a move to gain greater central control of the realm. In Ireland, theEarl of Kildare was replaced as governor by Sir William Skeffington (amilitary captain) and Lord Dacre was replaced as warden of the westmarches in the north by the Earl of Cumberland. All of this happened inthe space of a single month. As has been outlined above, Wales was ananarchic area, in need of a firm hand. Lee was to be that hand, andover the next nine years he conducted what some historians wouldcharacterise as a reign of terror. Like any sensible person, and in line with the thoughts of hissovereign, Lee was alive to the possibility that a Catholic nation suchas France or Spain was likely to invade. Lee took active measures todefend the coasts, recruiting soldiers and hunting out resources torepair the royal castles which had been falling into disrepair. At thetime of their construction, Welsh castles such as those built by EdwardI were designed as Welsh outposts, military strongholds in a freshlyconquered and belligerent colony. By the 1530s, the age ofcastle-building was over. Having mentioned above that Henry VIII hadused the monastic income to fund his extensive building projects; thismay surprise the reader of this piece. But do not be surprised. HenryVIII was a palace builder. He wanted large, glamorous and opulentresidences to relax in and house a Renaissance court that was worthy ofthe name. The type of uncomfortable and old-fashioned castle thatEdward I had deemed necessary in the thirteenth century was deemed ananachronism. They were also hugely expensive. This meant that Lee hadto make do with the castles he already had and hope that there wasntan invasion. Since his prayers were answered in this respect, we cannotjudge Lees success in this area. All we can say is that he seems tohave taken all the precautions a reasonable man could have taken. Lees greatest success and the biggest anvil dragging his reputationdown is his policy regarding law and order. This essay has discussed atsome length the lawlessness and turbulence that abounded in the WelshMarches prior to the arrival of Bishop Lee. His reports were in partresponsible for the reforms found in the 1536 Act, an act which gavethe Council of Wales the means to take Welsh matters in hand. Itensured that the patchwork of private judicial enclaves and palatinatesbecame a large English common law blanket under Lee’s jurisdiction.There is no doubt that Lee earned his nickname of the hanging bishop.Indeed, his entire policy on law and order was to hang people, the morethe better. Hanging was to be done frequently and publicly, especiallyif the criminal in question was of a more respectable background thanthe common criminal. Davies credits Lee with saying that executing agentleman was better than dispatching a hundred petty wretches andclaims he boasted that he had exe cuted four of the best blood inShropshire. Even if this is true, it is a sound policy. One of themajor scourges of the Wars of the Roses had been the major families andtheir constant liberty-taking where the law was concerned. Greatfamilies would wage private wars and other nobles would keep a hold ontheir territories by fear and licensing thugs and criminals to run riotthroughout their lands. The Marcher lordships were no different. Therewas little respect for the law. One way to instil a healthy fearfulrespect of the law was to prove that no-one was above it. If a wealthylanded gentleman could swing from the gallows for a crime then anyonecould. This author is no fan of capital punishment and would point tothe fact that people still kill each other in states where the deathpenalty exists. But in the case of Bishop Lee, it would be incrediblydifficult to argue that his policy of hanging did not act as adeterrent. The Marches and the rest of the principality quickly fellinto line. T he chronicler Elis Gruffyd claims that Lee executed fivethousand men in six years and this would certainly accord with theprinciple ascribed to Lee that it was better to hang a hundred innocentmen than let a guilty one escape the noose. If Lee really did despatchfive thousand souls to meet their maker, then it is easy to see whyWales became a more orderly region under his rule. In 1538, the manhimself said that order and quiet such as is now in England prevailedall over Wales. A key question when determining Lees success is the extent to whichLee benefited from the reforms of 1536, and whether the success of Leewas really the success of administrative reform as imposed byWestminster. After all, the key thread running through the criticism of the Marcherlordships is that they lacked a uniform legal system and an effectiveand unified administrative machine. The Act of 1536 gave Wales boththese things and therefore, the argument could be made, brought orderto the Principality. Before this argument is debunked, it is necessaryto give it a full airing by going over exactly how the Act aided BishopLees pursuit of order. Much was made in the previous section of the legal, jurisdictional andpolitical patchwork that existed in the Marches. Naturally this causedserious administrative problems for Bishop Lee. The extensive rightsgranted to the Marcher lords in the previous century still existed,even if the political and military justification for such a delegationof royal authority no longer did. This left the Council prettypowerless where the lordships were concerned, and meant that any reformLee undertook had to be confined to the Principality. Not that that wasan easy task, for the Principality had, in many places, Welsh andEnglish law operating side by side. These jurisdictional problems weresolved in one fell swoop by the 1536 Act; Lee went from having littleor no jurisdiction to having legal authority over all of Wales. Withoutthis reform of Marcher and Principality law, Lees task would have beenmuch more difficult than it was. Lee now had the power to punish