Saturday, October 5, 2019
The impact of the CISG on international business transactions Essay
The impact of the CISG on international business transactions - Essay Example 1.2. Thesis statement Recent years have been proved to be challenging for financial markets all over the world due to a spread in the international business transactions as well as the risks behind it. Starting from this idea, and also the past customs in international trade, this paper proposes to analyze the impact of contracts for international sale of goods (CISG) on the international business transactions. 1.2. Literature Review According to Ferrari (2009) contracts for international sale of goods was a huge success. In his paper he has argued that it is one of the greatest legislative or governmental achievements in the process of harmonizing the classified commercial law. Within a short span of time a total of 70 countries became the member of CISG. A number of eminent scholars have highlighted the importance of CISG in the international arena. In order to cite an instance according to Fletcher (2009) the Contract for International Sale of Goods is one of the most successful a ttempts to harmonize the international trade. He further quoted that CISG project was a successor of the 2 substantive international sales agreements. The agreements were ‘Uniform Law on the Formation of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods’ and ‘Uniform Law for the International Sale of Goods’. It has to perform a number of functions. Some of them are highlighted below:- It administers the international sales agreements if both the associated parties are belong from the member countries. To manage the conflicts between the member countries with respect to international trade. It also tries to safeguard the private sovereignty of the member parties. Chapter 2 Building on the CISG 2.1. International... In general United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods is a necessary convention for the member countries that provide rules to administer the cross border sale of goods. It mainly seeks to lessen the problems of international trade pertaining to law. It is also a fact that whenever a cross border transaction takes place some form of disputes is bound to happen. Hence in order to reduce it and facilitate smother transaction process harmonization of international trade took place. This has also led to the formation of CSIG. It offered easier ways to carry out foreign trade when compared with the complex laws and bodies found in most of national rules and regulations. After the incorporation of CSIG the system of international trade witnessed drastically changes. There were hassle free transactions, and the process become easier. Apart from that it was also notices that the transaction cost got highly reduced thereby offer benefits to both the parties inv olved. Furthermore after its incorporation there were also large relaxations in the international trade law. Hence on the basis of the recoded data and reviewing the literatures about the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, it can be concluded that CSIG played an extremely important role in facilitating smoother international trade. Hence it has been able to impact positively on the international business transaction.
Friday, October 4, 2019
Building and sustaining strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words
Building and sustaining strategy - Essay Example The mission statement is to be the best advertising company in the world 1.2 The Market Target market: The target market is small entrepreneurs in addition to large multinational companies experiencing difficulties in marketing. Marketing strategy: My plans are to capture the market through advertisement of the company that will be mainly done online. My other way of targeting the intended market is by providing good and quality services in addition to offering after sale services to the customers. The other way is by charging low prices in order to attract the customers by offering them discounts. 1.3 The Finances The first quarter of our business operation will mainly intended to break even. The second quarter is intended to start building provides. The annual intended target is $100 million dollars and this will be expected to keep increasing while the business keeps adapting to rapid changing economic demands. 2.0 Registration Details Business name: WRSX Group Trading name(s): WR SX Group Date registered: 18/12/2012 Location(s) registered: Business structure: company Licences & permits: council permits on safety, business operations, security 2.1 Business Premises Business location: The business centre will be located in Happyville. 3.0 The Business Vision Statement In the next 3 years, WRSX Group will become a recognized leader in the local and international advertisement firm in the world. Mission Statement Members will receive personalised programs to suit their individual needs at competitive market rates. Staff will have a client focus, and a thirst for continual development of knowledge and their craft. Clients will be motivated to continue to exercise through a variety of programs, with their individual characteristics taken into account. All decisions will be based upon integrity, honesty, efficiency, and a desire for high quality. Management & Ownership Names of owners: james milner, terry mclean, Diana rose, Jamie fox, ann robinson, john lesly, bri an pink. Details of management & ownership: As the owners we will run the business and share the profits and dividends according to the shares each member has contributed Key Personnel Recruitment options Selection and recruiting will be done professionally through the internet and oral interviews will be conducted after applications have been collected. The applicant will also undergo a practical interview on the gym training skills they have. Training programs Personal training of the staff will be provided in order to familiarize with the services offered and handling of the sophisticated machines and equipment Skill retention strategies Staff and employees must be licenced as professionals who can safely work in the centre. The staff must renew their licences every year to ensure professionalism is maintained. However, regular training and evaluations will be provided in order to keep the staff updated with the latest skills. Market position: The business is located strategicall y in the middle of the town Unique selling Our products are both necessity and luxurious and fulfilling customers’ needs and demands are our major motive. Growth potential: Growth is likely to increase due to the demand especially with the sudden changes in technology and innovation with regard to a lot of competition in the market 3.7 Insurance Payment types accepted: Payment of the services offered may be made via electronic money to an account on our website, in
Thursday, October 3, 2019
Wetland And Water Environment Essay Example for Free
Wetland And Water Environment Essay Introduction Ecological restoration has been proven to be a very difficult and yet an extremely valuable undertaking. It is one of the major problems faced by every country in the world for it is the key to Mother Earth’s struggle for survival. Restoration pertains to the reestablishment and replenishment of natural wetland systems to be once more suitable for wetland creatures as their habitat. But, what wetland ecosystems are we pertaining to? What type of wetland ecosystem do we plan to target and why? Is it enough to establish any type of wetland ecosystem and be called â€Å"restoration†? As stated by Lovette (et al. , 2002), Australias enthusiasm for restoring and rehabilitating rivers and streams is growing at a fair rate yet most of the time, such projects fail to produce the desired results of improvement. This is due to the fact that these projects lack planning resulting to poorly defined project objectives and rehabilitation strategies. In addition to this matter, many social and political factors rather than a lack of technical skills were often major factors influencing the success of river restoration projects. Ecologists and restorationists took these questions in account and had included them as definitions of restoration and restoration-type activities. A simple yet very nifty definition of ecological restoration included in the 1992 report Restoration of Aquatics Ecosystems by the National Research Council (NRC), defined restoration as the â€Å"return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance.†The NRC declares that the concept of restoration to be further clarified by defining many types of restoration-related activities. Creation, reallocation, and enhancement are such activities that are similar to restoration, but vary in some aspect from rehabilitation of the original ecosystem to areas they once existed. Reintroduction of animals is also a major factor of restoration that must be taken in account. The mere recreation of form without the specific function is not the essence of restoration, nor is having the function in the artificial pattern without even a close similitude to the real thing. The goal of restoration is to produce a natural, self-regulating ecosystem that functions perfectly with the landscape and conditions in which it occurs. Body            To have a deeper understanding in the field of ecological restoration, let us first define terms that are used in the field of ecological restoration.            Creation is defined as the construction of a wetland in an area that was not a wetland in the recent past (within the last 100-200 years) and that is isolated from existing wetlands (i.e., not directly adjacent) (Gwin, et al., 1999). In other words, creation occurs when a wetland is placed on the landscape by some human activity on a non-wetland site (Lewis, 1989). Normally, creation of a wetland in plot of land starts by digging out upland soils to an appropriate elevation suitable for the growth of wetland species by a proper hydrological pattern. Enhancement, as defined by Gwin, et al. (1999) is â€Å"the modification of specific structural features of an existing wetland to increase one or more functions based on management objectives, typically done by modifying site elevations or the proportion of open water. Although this term implies gain or improvement, a positive change in one wetland function may negatively affect other wetland functions. Enhancement may also be the alteration of a site to produce conditions that did not previously exist in order to accentuate one or more values of a site. For example, increasing the area of deep water by excavating parts of an emergent wetland may provide more duck habitat (the desired wetland value), but may decrease foraging and cover habitat for young fish (Lewis 1989). The term reallocation replacement pertains to altering or converting existing wetlands to create a different type of wetland. For example, transforming a developing wetland, like a swamp, to a pond will convert the habitat from one wetland type to a different type. A term commonly used during discussions of restoration is mitigation, which â€Å"refers to the restoration, creation, or enhancement of wetlands to compensate for permitted wetland losses (Lewis, 1989). It is stated in under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act that â€Å"wetlands may legally be destroyed, but their loss must be compensated for by the restoration, creation, or enhancement of other wetlands. Hypothetically, the policy aims retain the wetland’s quality. The Watershed Ecology Team if Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds have devised a list of principles which played a critical role to the success of a wide range of aquatic resource restoration programs and projects. These principles are applicable through the different stages in the process of wetland restoration and focus on scientific and technical issues. Nevertheless, in all environmental and ecological management activities, it is crucial to examine community perspectives and values. There are a lot of guiding principles that ecologists follow in the field of wetland and river restoration. Given below are some doctrines that may help in the restoration of the rivers in Western Australia, namely the Hutt, Greenough, and Chapman River. The common dilemma faced by these rivers is erosion of soil along their banks. This is due to the lack of vegetation to hold the soil in place. Because of this catastrophe, a number of the wild life, like birds nesting on the trees or the fishes in the river, is threatened to loose obtain damage to their habitat. The Chapman River Estuary, though a popular place, due to the lack of management, has degraded. Several erosions has occurred, weeds are numerous among the vegetation, and wildlife have been frequently disturbed. Restoration of these rivers considers several, yet not too costly stages. The first stage of the Greenough River Restoration Project cost approximately $11,000 while the second stage of the Greenough River Restoration Project needed a total funding of about $68,000 through Trust Funding. The Chapman River Foreshore Restoration Project at the Nanson Hamlet in Chapman Valley adhered principles which is slowly revitalizing the landscape, cost around $18,000. The purpose of the Hutt River Floodplain Management Plan (HRFMP) is to update the Advisory Committee on their status, investigations and implementation (ATAPATTU, 2001). A clear concept of the projects goals, objectives, performance, and desired outcome is a critical part in the success of the restoration project for it gives a vivid look on how the scheme should run. One principle, â€Å"Preserve and protect aquatic resources†, explains that existing ecosystems are critical in the conservation of biodiversity, and supply the weakened system with the necessary materials. Restoration, together with protection and preservation, can improve wetland systems in an immense level. In this principle, the first step to secure the revitalization of a system is to prevent further depletion (USEPA, 2006). According to Palmer (2005), five relevant features should be brought to mind during river restoration. They are a guiding image – by creating a vision of you goals and ideas, you have a concrete image of your desired outcome; improvement of ecosystems – by adding functionality to the factors in the ecosystem, you will have positive results that the environment supplies; increase in resilience – by generating flexible products that can recover when damaged, or surpass other products; doing no lasting harm – actions done in restoration should not give an ill effect to the surrounding countryside, and have a long-lasting positive effect on the target location; and completion of an ecological assessment – provide a written clearly defined results on the project (McGee, 2005). Restoration of natural structure and function plays a major role in the restoration of natural wetlands. In the recreation of a natural habitat, its structure must be deeply studied for if a flaw in the system occurs, the whole project could further damage the area or the surrounding terrain. The function should, as much as possible, be close to the existing system’s function to instill balance (USEPA, 2006). Conclusion and Recommendation            Though there are quite a number of principles and guidelines that ecologists use in there quest to restore and revitalize denuded wetlands in the globe, these principles come together and express common guides to the success of rejuvenating the wetland system.            The first step is to clearly plan the project focusing on critical points that will ensure the accomplishment of the activity. Next is to mobilize the design, in which requires funds, in a procedure that won’t disturb or harm the surrounding areas. It must be ensured that the outcome of the project will be, as much as possible, like the former wetland system, to avoid further damage to the environment rather than to revitalize the land. And lastly, there should be a constant maintenance and management in the area to preserve the beauty and functionality of the structured landscape.            By following these few principles in the reconstruction of denuded wastelands, the future of the wetlands and rivers of Australia, and also the world, will be brighter. References USEPA.(2006). Definitions distinctions. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from River Corridor and Wetland Restoration Web site: http://www.epa.gov/owow/wetlands/restore/defs.html#Defs ______. (2002) Greenough. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from Westernbelle Australian Adventures Web site: http://www.westernbelle.com/gren.html ______. (2002) Hutt river province. Retrieved September 24, 2006, from Principality of hutt river.      Web site: http://www.westernbelle.com/H.HTML#huttriver Blacklow et. al, (2001). River restoration and management in australia: a national framework for vocational education and training and graduate studies.      Retrieved September 25, 2006 Web site: http://www.rivers.gov.au/acrobat/uwa26/uwa26final.pdf#search=river%20restoration%20western%20australia McGee, T. (2005). Guiding principles for river restoration and sustainable product design. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from Treehugger Web site: http://www.treehugger.com/files/2005/04/guiding_princip.php ______. (2005). Evaluation sourcebook. Retrieved September 25, 2006, from Ecosystem Management Initiative Website:http://www.snre.umich.edu/ecomgt/pubs/wetlands/hennepin/2.4.PDF#search=river%20wetland%20restoration%20principles Peck, D. (2003). Resolution VIII.16 on wetland restoration.      Retrieved September 25, 2006, from the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands      Web site:http://ramsar.org/res/key_res_viii_16_e.htm ______. 2002-2003 Australian government envirofund projects western australia.      Retrieved September 25, 2006, from National Heritage Trust      Web site:http://www.nht.gov.au/envirofund/2002-2003/general/wa-projects.html Atapattu, D. (2001). Hutt river floodplain management plan (hrfmp): project leader’s report.      Retrieved September 25, 2006, from the Regional Council Web site:http://www.gw.govt.nz/council-reports/pdfs/reportdocs/2001_110_1_Report.pdf#search=hutt%20river%20restoration%20project _____. 2001-2002 Coastcare projects: Western australia.      Retrieved September 25, 2006, from National Heritage Trust      Web site:http://www.nht.gov.au/nht1/programs/coastcare/wa-01-02.html#45 ______. (2006). Fact sheet 9 planning for river restoration.      Retrieved September 25, 2006, from River Landscapes.      Web site:http://www.rivers.gov.au/manage/is9planning.htm
Evolution of Australian Flora: Hymenopteran Visual Systems
Evolution of Australian Flora: Hymenopteran Visual Systems Abstract Very little work has been done on the evolution of floral colour diversity, outside of Europe and the Middle East. In particular, we know almost nothing about the evolution of the Australian flora in the context of hymenopteran visual systems. Such a study is likely to be important due to the geologically long isolation of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. The aims of this study were to investigate the colour of Australian native flowers in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the innate colour preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria), and the interactions between native bees and a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). Firstly, I found that the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans match up with floral colour diversity and that hymenopterans appear to have been a major contributor to flower colour evolution in Australia. Secondly, I found that Trigona carbonaria has innate preferences for wavelengths of 422, 437 a nd 530 nm. Thirdly, I found that bees were able to habituate to orchid flowers based on colour, thus potentially explaining the colour polymorphism of Caladenia carnea. Together, my study suggests that the evolution of the Australian flora has been influenced by hymenopterans. 1. Introduction Plant-pollinator interactions The mutual interactions between pollinators and plants have been suspected in driving angiosperm radiation and diversification in the past (Regal 1977; Crepet 1984; McPeek 1996). The obvious mutual benefit is that pollinators depend on the pollen and/or nectar of flowering plants for food and, in return, partake in the incidental transfer of pollen necessary for plant reproduction (Faegri and van der Pijl 1978; Harder, Williams et al. 2001). Worldwide, it is estimated that more than 67% of angiosperm plants rely on pollination by insects (Tepedino 1979). Hence, pollinators play a critical role in the persistence and survival of flowering plants, which are of high value to the human food chain (Kearns and Inouye 1997; Klein, Vaissiere et al. 2007). Flower colour signals and sensory exploitation Colour is the result of the visible light being absorbed or reflected off objects and then processed by the eye and brain of an animal (Le Grand 1968). Light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, and can be quantified by the wavelength of different photons of energy (Bueche 1986). The wavelengths reflected off the object are perceived by a visual system as the object’s colour. For example, light that appears blue to a human observer can be described by a dominant wavelength of 400nm, whilst light that appears red is 700nm. Ultraviolet light falls between 300-400nm and can be seen by bees, but not humans. Flower colours have been influenced by the sensory receptors of insects, including their colour vision, which is different to human vision. Humans have a red, blue and green receptor (Chittka and Wells 2004). In contrast insects have a UV, green and blue receptor (Chittka and Wells 2004). As human vision is very different to a hymenopterans’ colour visual system, one cannot discuss a bees’ colour perception according to human colour terms such as red or blue. Therefore, this thesis will discuss colours according to wavelength. Colour is one of the most important floral signals plants use to communicate information to insect pollinators (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996; Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008). Although it is known that pollinators select flowers based on morphology, nectar availability, size, and odour (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1994; Kunze and Gumbert 2001; Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001; Whitney and Glover 2007), colour is known to play a critical role in enabling pollinators to detect and discriminate target flowers from a biologically important distance of up to 50 cm (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996; Dyer, Spaethe et al. 2008). Our understanding of the evolution of colour vision in insects has advanced considerably in recent years. In the past, studies of colour perception were limited due to little information on the colour visual system of insects (Frisch 1914; Daumer 1956). It is now possible to evaluate how flower visual signals appear to the visual system of hymenopteran pollinators, using spectrophotometer and colorimetry techniques, which allows quantitative evaluations of how complex colour information is perceived by insect pollinators (Chittka 1992) (fig. 1). Previous research has revealed that colour discrimination in hymenopterans is phylogenetically ancient, with different hymenopterans sharing similar colour perception (Helversen 1972; Chittka and Menzel 1992). Importantly, colour discrimination in the hymenoptera is known to predate the evolution of floral colour diversity (Chittka 1996). Here, recent research has revealed remarkable convergence in the evolution and distribution of floral colours in different parts of the world. Specifically, in a seminal paper, Chittka (1996) showed that flowering plants in both Europe and the Middle East have adapted their colour signals to the visual systems of bees, with flower colours in these regions closely matched to the visual receptors of hymenopterans (Chittka 1996). However, outside of Europe and the Middle East, very little work has been done on the evolution of floral colour diversity. In particular, we know almost nothing about the evolution of the Australian flora in the context of hy menopteran visual systems. This is an important question to investigate due to the long isolation of the Australian flora and the high proportion of endemic plant species. I hypothesise that the Australian floral coloration will closely match the discrimination thresholds of hymenopterans as recent evidence suggests that insect pollinators supported the early spread of flowering plants (Hu, Dilcher et al. 2008). Innate colour preferences of bees Charles Darwin was the first to state that innate preferences could allow an inexperienced pollinator to find a food source (Darwin 1877). Pollinators may use certain traits of flowers such as morphology, scent, temperature and colour to locate food (Heinrich 1979; Menzel 1985; Dyer, Whitney et al. 2006; Raine, Ings et al. 2006). Previous studies evaluating innate colour preferences have tended to focus on two species: the European honey bee (Apis mellifera) and bumblebee (Bombus terrestris). By contrast, no studies have looked at the innate colour preferences of Australian bees and how this affects their choices for flowers. We know that European bumblebees and honeybees show strong preferences for violet and blue (400-420nm) throughout their geographic range (Chittka, Ings et al. 2004) ,which interestingly correlates with the most profitable food sources (Lunau and Maier 1995; Chittka and Raine 2006). These preferences are likely to have had an impact on the relative success of dif ferent flower colours in regions where these bees are dominant pollinators (Chittka and Wells 2004). Consequently, information on the innate preferences of Australian bees will be important to understand hymenopteran plant interactions in the Australian context. Pollinator learning and food deceptive orchids Most plants reward their pollinators with nectar or pollen. However, some species do not offer floral rewards and, instead, employ a range of deceptive techniques to trick insects into performing the task of pollination. Deceptive pollination strategies are particularly well known and widespread among orchids (Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2006). For instance, approximately 400 orchid species are known to achieve pollination through sexual deceit, luring unsuspecting male insects to the flower through olfactory, visual and tactile mimicry of potential mates. More common are food deceptive orchids which are believed to number as many as 6,000 species (one-third of orchids) (Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2009). Food mimicking orchids employ bright colours to falsely advertise the presence of a reward to attract naive pollinators (Ackerman 1986; Nilsson 1992; Jersà ¡kovà ¡, Johnson et al. 2006). The common occurrence of food deception in orchids suggests that this form of pollinat ion by deception is an extremely successful evolutionary strategy (Cozzolino and Widmer 2005). Visits by pollinators to deceptive plants are influenced by pollinator learning. In the case of sexual deception, previous research shows that insects quickly learn unrewarding flower decoys and avoid them. For example, male insects learn to avoid areas containing sexually deceptive orchids (Peakall 1990; Wong and Schiestl 2002). However, whether insects can learn to avoid food deceptive orchids remains to be investigated. In addition, high levels of variability in floral traits, particularly flower colour and floral scent, may interrupt the associative learning of insects by preventing their ability to become familiar with deceptive flowers (Schiestl 2005). Indeed, variation in colour, shape and fragrance is evident in non-model food-deceptive orchids (Moya and Ackerman 1993; Aragà ³n and Ackerman 2004; Salzmann, Nardella et al. 2007). However, previous studies have only looked at pollinator preference for colour morphs (Koivisto, Vallius et al. 2002), rather than assessing if vari able flower colour slows down the ability of naive pollinators to learn unrewarding flower decoys. Furthermore, there is a need to incorporate a combination of colour vision science and behavioural ecology to understand how a bee perceives the orchid flowers, as bees have a different visual system to humans. Although humans cannot see ultra-violet light, UV sensitivity is common in some animals (Tovà ©e 1995). UV sensitivity has been found in insects, birds, fish and reptiles (Marshall, Jones et al. 1996; Neumeyer and Kitschmann 1998; Cuthill, Partridge et al. 2000; Briscoe and Chittka 2001). Studies on UV vision in an ecological context have mainly focused on species specific signalling and mate choice (Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1996; Bennett, Cuthill et al. 1997; Pearn 2001; Cummings, Garc et al. 2006). However, few studies have looked at the role of UV signals in attracting bees to orchids. Previous studies have shown that the presence of UV reflecting crab spiders attracts honeybees to daisies (Heiling, Herberstein et al. 2003). In a similar study, Australian native bees (Austroplebia australis) were attracted but did not land on flowers with UV reflecting crab spiders (Heiling and Herberstein 2004). However, the role of UV signals in orchids is not well studied. In particular, it is not known if the UV signal is important in attracting naive bees to food deceptive orchids. Thus, it will be useful to know if UV signals might also serve to lure naive pollinators to deceptive flowers to understand deceptive pollination. Aims This project will investigate Australian flower colour diversity in the context of hymenopteran visual systems, the innate colour preferences of Australian native bees (Trigona carbonaria) and their interactions with a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea). This study aims to address the following questions: 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? 3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonar 2. Methods Part 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? Flower collection and spectral reflectance functions of Australian native plant flowers Australian native flowers were collected from Maranoa Gardens, Balwyn (melway ref 46 F7). Maranoa Gardens was chosen due to the diverse collection of species from all over Australia. Flowers were collected once a month, from May to January. A colour photograph was taken of the flower for identification. I also took a UV photograph for all flowers, using a digital UV camera [Fuji Finepix Pro S3 UVIR modified CCD for UV imaging] with calibrated UV-vis grey scales (Dyer, Muir et al. 2004). As UV rays are invisible to the human eye (Menzel and Blakers 1976; Dyer 2001), this photo enabled any UV reflectance areas of the flower to be measured by the spectrophotometer (Indsto, Weston et al. 2006). The spectral reflection functions of flowers were calculated from 300 to 700 nm using a spectrophotometer(S2000) with a PX-2 pulsed xenon light source attached to a PC running SpectraSuite software (Ocean Optics Inc., Dunedin, FL, USA). The spectrophotometer was used to quantify the colour of the flower as wavelength. The white standard was a freshly pressed pellet of dry BaSO4, used to calibrate the spectrophotometer. A minimum of three flowers from each plant were used for each spectral analysis. I evaluated a sample of 111 spectral measurements from Australian flowering plants, encompassing a representative variety of plant families (fig. 2). Correlations between spectral reflectance functions of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybees To understand if there is a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian native flowers, I used the methodology used by Chittka and Menzel (1992). In that study, Chittka and Menzel looked for correlations between flower spectra sharp steps of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of the honeybees. Sharp steps are a rapid change in the spectra wavelength (Chittka and Menzel 1992) (see fig. 3 for an example of a sharp step). These steps cross over different receptors, thereby producing vivid colours that stand out from the background. Furthermore, a colour signal will be more distinguishable to a pollinator if the sharp steps match up with the overlap of receptors in a visual system. Thus, the main feature of a flower wavelength is a sharp step. For this study, I defined a sharp step as a change of greater than 20 % reflectance in less than 50 nm of the bee visual spectrum. The midpoint of the slope was determined by eyesight as described by Chittka and Menzel (1992), as th e nature of curves varied with each flower. The absolute numbers of sharp steps within each flower spectra were counted. The frequencies are shown in fig. 4b. As hybrid plants are artificially selected by humans, hybrid flowers were not included in the analyses. Generating a Hexagon colour space To evaluate how flower colours are seen by bees, I plotted the flower colour positions in a colour hexagon space. A colour space is a numerical representation of an insect’s colour perception that is suitable for a wide range of hymenopteran species (Chittka 1992). In a colour space, the distances between locations of a two colour objects link with the insect’s capacity to differentiate those colours. To make the colour space, the spectral reflectance of the colour objects were required, as well as the receptor sensitivities of the insect. For Trigona carbonaria, the exact photoreceptors are currently unknown, but hymenopteran trichromatic vision is very similar between species as the colour photoreceptors are phylogenetically ancient (Chittka 1996). Thus, it is possible to model hymenopteran vision with a vitamin A1 visual template (Stavenga, Smits et al. 1993) as described by Dyer (1999). I then predicted how the brain processed these colour signals by using the avera ge reflectance from each flower, and calculating the photoreceptor excitation (E) values, according to the UV, blue and green receptor sensitivities (Briscoe and Chittka 2001) using the methods explained by Chittka (1992). The UV, blue and green E-values of flower spectra were used as coordinates and plotted in a colour space (Chittka 1992). The colour difference as perceived by a bee was calculated by the Euclidean distance between two objects locations in the colour hexagon space (Chittka 1992). Modelling the distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees’ perception I analysed the most frequent flower colour according to a bees’ colour perception using the methods of Chittka, Shmida et al. (1994). I plotted the Australian flower colours in a colour space (Fig 5a). A colour space is a graphical representation of a bees’ colour perception. A radial grid of 10 degree sectors was placed over the distribution of colour loci and the number of floral colour loci within each sector was counted(fig. 5b). Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? Insect model and housing Trigona carbonaria is an Australian native stingless bee that lives in colonies of 4000-10000 individuals (Heard 1988). In the wild, stingless bees live in hollows inside trees (Dollin, Dollin et al. 1997). Trigona carbonaria has a similar social structure to the honeybee (Wille 1983). They are common to North Eastern Australia and are a potentially important pollinator for several major commercial crops (Heard 1999). A research colony (ca. 4000 adults and 800 foraging individuals) of T. carbonaria was propagated for the experiments by Dr Tim Heard (CSIRO Entomology, 120 Meiers Rd, Indooroopilly 4068, Australia) as described in the paper by Heard (1988). Bees were maintained in laboratory conditions so that no previous contact with flowers had been made. For this study, a colony was placed in a pine nest box (27.5 x 20 x 31 cm; LWH) and connected to the foraging arena by a 16 cm plexiglass tube, containing individual shutters to control bee movements. All laboratory experiments were conducted in a Controlled Temperature Laboratory (CTL) at Monash University, Clayton, School of Biological Sciences (CTL room G12C dimensions 3 x 5m), during the months of July 2009- January 2010. Relative humidity (RH) was set to 30%, and the temperature was set to 27  °C (SPER-Scientific Hygrometer, Arizona, USA), as this set up approximately matches conditions in Queensland for insect pollinators (Heard and Hendrikz 1993). Illumination (10/14 hr day/night) was provided by four Phillips Master TLS HE slimline 28W/865 UV+ daylight fluorescent tubes (Holland) with specially fitted high frequency (>1200Hz) ATEC Jupiter EGF PMD2x14-35 electronic dimmable ballasts which closely matches daylight conditions for trichromatic hymenoptera (Dyer and Chittka 2004). The flight arena (1.2 x 0.6 x 0.5m; LWH) was made of a coated steel frame with laminated white wooden side panels. The arena floor was painted foliage green, and the arena lid was covered with UV transparent plexiglass. Experimen ts were conducted from 1pm-3pm to control for time of day, as this is when bees are most active (Heard and Hendrikz 1993). Pre-training Bees were habituated to the flight arena for seven days. Naive foragers (i.e. bees that had never encountered real or artificial flowers) were initially pre-trained to forage in the flight arena on three rewarding aluminium sanded disks (25 mm in diameter), with a 10-ÃŽ ¼l droplet of 15% (w/w) sucrose solution placed in the centre. The disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 25 mm, height = 100 mm), to raise them above the floor of the flight arena so that bees learnt to fly to the disks. Pre-training allows bees to become habituated to visiting artificial flowers for further experiments. The aluminium sanded disks were chosen as neutral stimuli because they have an even spectral reflectance curve in the spectral visual range of the bees, fig. 6. The sucrose solution reward on these training disks was refilled using a pipette after it was consumed by foraging bees. The spatial positions of these training disks were pseudo randomised, so that bees would not learn t o associate particular locations with reward. Bees were allowed a minimum of two hours to forage on the pre-training disks before data collection Innate colour preference testing To test the innate colour preferences of naive bees, I performed simultaneous choice experiments with flower-naive bees using artificial flowers that simulated the floral colours of natural flowers. The aluminum rewarding disks were replaced by the ten unrewarding, coloured artificial disks in the original flight arena. Artificial flower stimuli were cut in a circle (70 mm diameter) from standardized colour papers of the HKS-N-series (Hostmann-Steinberg K+E Druckfarben, H. Schmincke Co., Germany). In each experiment the same set of ten test colours (1N pale yellow, 3N saturated yellow, 21N light pink, 32N pink, 33N purple, 50N blue, 68N green, 82N brown, 92N grey, back of 92N white) were used. These colours were chosen as they have been used in innate colour experiments with other hymenopterans (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1995; Kelber 1997; Gumbert 2000), and the colours are also widely used in other bee colour experiments (Giurfa, Vorobyev et al. 1996). The coloured paper disks were placed on vertical plastic cylinders (diameter = 15 mm; height = 50 mm), to raise them above the floor of the flight arena. The gate was shut in the arena to ensure the bees used in each trial were separated from the next trial. The number of landings and approaches to the stimuli were recorded for one hour. Approximately 200 bees were used for each trial. The spatial positions of the artificial flowers were pseudo randomised in a counter balance fashion every 15 minutes. After each trial, the colour disks were aired and wiped with a paper tissue to remove possible scent marks, which are known to affect experiments with honeybees (Schmitt and Bertsch 1990; Giurfa and Nà ºÃƒ ±ez 1992). I conducted each subsequent trial after removing the used bees from the system, to ensure that the bees in the next trial were replaced with naive foragers. It is known that perception of colour can be influenced by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Therefore, I also tested colour choices on other background colours of grey and black. The results are qualitatively similar (fig. 8b), so only data from the biologically relevant green background was used for subsequent analysis. Analysis of colour stimuli As bees see colours differently to humans, I quantified stimuli according to five parameters: wavelength, brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast. Dominant wavelength was calculated by tracing a line from the centre of the colour hexagon through the stimulus location to the corresponding spectrum locus wavelength (Wyszecki and Stiles 1982). Brightness was measured as the sum of excitation values of the UV, blue and green receptors (Spaethe, Tautz et al. 2001). Spectral purity of the stimulus was calculated by the percentage distance of the stimulus in relation to the end of the spectrum locus (Chittka and Wells 2004). Chromatic contrast was calculated as the distance of a colour stimulus from the centre of the colour hexagon relative to the background. Chromatic contrast is important as perception can be affected by background colour (Lunau, Wacht et al. 1996). Green receptor contrast was measured as the green receptor excitat ion from a stimulus relative to the background (Giurfa, Nà ºÃƒ ±ez et al. 1995). This contrast is relevant as green receptors and green contrast are known to affect motion in bees (Srinivasan, Lehrer et al. 1987). Statistical analyses The impact of wavelength on number of landings by Trigona carbonaria was investigated using a single factor analysis of variance (ANOVA) and a post hoc Tukeys HSD test (ÃŽ ±=0.05) (Quinn and Keough 2002) using the number of landings as the dependent variable and wavelength of stimuli as the independent variable. Brightness, purity (saturation), chromatic contrast to the background and green receptor contrast of stimuli were analysed using the Spearmans rank correlation test against choices. Statistical analyses were conducted using R statistical and graphical environment (R Development Core Team, 2007). Statistical significance was set to P≠¤0.05. Part 3. Does a food deceptive orchid (Caladenia carnea) exploit the innate colour preferences of Trigona carbonaria? Plant model Caladenia carnea is a widespread species, common to eastern Australia. The orchid is highly variable in colour, ranging from pink to white. It is pollinated by Australian native bees of the Trigona species (Adams and Lawson 1993).With bright colours and fragrance, this orchid achieves pollination by food mimicry (Adams and Lawson 1993). Thus, due to the colour variation of the orchid, C. carnea is an excellent model with which to examine floral exploitation of potential pollinators. Caladenia carnea flowers were supplied by private growers from the Australasian Native Orchid Society. Can Trigona carbonaria perceive a difference between pink and white flowers of Caladenia carnea? Colorimetric analysis of the pink and white Caladenia carnea flowers were used to investigate whether different colours of the orchid would be perceived as similar or different to a bees’ visual system. A spectrophotometer was used to take four measurements of each flower colour (pink versus white). The actual measurements used in the analysis were an average of each colour (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). To predict the probability with which insect pollinators would discriminate between different flowers, these spectra were plotted as loci in a hexagon colour space (Chittka 1992) (see ‘hexagon colour space’ methods). Choice experiments I conducted trials testing the preferences of bees when offered a dichotomous choice between a white versus pink Caladenia carnea flower. Each trial took place inside a flight arena. Each white and pink flower used in a trial were matched for size, placed into indiviual plastic containers (diameter= 5 cm, height=5 cm) and placed in the arena with a distance of 10 cm between flower centres. Each container was covered with Glad WrapTM (The Clorox Company, Oaklands, CA, USA) to remove olfactory cues as they are known to in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uence the choice behaviour of honeybees (e.g. Pelz, Gerber et al. 1997; Laska, Galizia et al. 1999). Approximately 50 bees were let into the arena for each trial. The  ¬Ã‚ rst contact made by a bee with the Glad WrapTM within a distance of 4 cm, was recorded as a choice of that  ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ower (Dyer, Whitney et al. 2007). The number of landings were recorded to the flowers for five minutes. After each trial, the Glad WrapTM was changed to prevent scent ma rks. In addition, individual flowers and spatial positions were randomised. Individual bees were sacrificed after each trial to avoid pseudo replication. Does the UV signal affect the attraction of bees to orchid flowers? To investigate whether the UV re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ectance of the dorsal sepal affected the response of bees, I offered bees the choice between two white orchids, one with a UV signal and the other without (N=16). The UV signal was removed by applying a thin layer of sunscreen (Hamilton SPF 30+, Adelaide, SA, Australia) over the dorsal sepal. Spectral reflectance measurements were taken to ensure that the sunscreen prevented any reflection of UV light (below 395 nm) from the sepals and did not change the reflectance properties of the orchid. In addition, spectral measurements of orchid sepals under Glad WrapTM confirmed that the foil was permeable to all wavelengths of light above 300 nm and did not obscure the reflectance of flowers. Do bees display preferences when choosing between pink versus white orchid flowers? To assess whether bees show a preference for pink or white variants of the orchid Caladenia carnea, I offered bees a simultaneous choice between a pink or white flower (N=16). See procedures for choice testing. Do bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration? I conducted a two stage experiment to investigate if bees could learn to habituate to a non-rewarding flower colour over time and whether bees adjusted their subsequent flower choice depending on the flower colour encountered previously. At stage 1 of the experiment, native bees were presented with one flower, either white or pink. Flowers were placed in a container with Glad WrapTM. Landings to the flower were recorded at the start and again at the 30 min mark. At stage 2, the flower from stage 1 was swapped with a new flower colour and the number of landings were scored for 5 minutes. Flowers were randomised and Glad WrapTM changed to prevent scent marks after each trial. Once again, bees were used only once per experiment. Statistical analyses For experiments 2, 3 4, numbers of landings by naive bees to flower pairs were compared using two tailed paired t-tests. A two factor ANOVA was used to analyse whether bees habituate to non-rewarding orchids based on differences in floral coloration. The dependent variable was the number of landings and the two independent variables were previous flower colour and new flower colour. 3. Results Part 1. Is there a link between hymenopteran vision and Australian floral coloration? Correlations between the inflection curves of different plant flowers and trichomatic vision of hymenopterans The analysis of 111 spectral reflection curves of Australian flowers reveals that sharp steps occur at those wavelengths where hymenoterans are most sensitive to spectral differences (fig. 4b). There are three clear peaks in sharp steps (fig. 4b). It is known that hymenopteran trichomats are all sensitive to spectral differences at approximately 400 and 500 nm (Menzel and Backhaus 1991; Peitsch, Fietz et al. 1992). Hence, the peaks at 400 and 500 nm can be discriminated well by hymenopteran trichomats, as illustrated by the inverse ΆÎ »/ÃŽ » function (solid curve shown in fig. 4a) of the honeybee (Helversen 1972), which is an empirically determined threshold function which shows the region of the electromagnetic function that a bees’ visual system discriminates colours best. In summary, the spectral position of receptors of trichomatic hymenopterans are correlates with steps in the floral spectra of Australian flowers. The distributions of Australian flower colours according to bees’ perception The floral colour loci are strongly clustered in the colour hexagon (fig. 5a). Blue-green flowers are the most common in the perception of bees, while pure UV flowers were the rarest (fig. 5b). Part 2. Does an Australian native bee (Trigona carbonaria) have innate colour preferences? Effect of brightness, spectral purity, chromatic contrast and green receptor contrast on colour choices There was no significant effect of stimulus brightness on choice frequency (rs= 0.333, n=10, p= 0.347; fig. 7a). There was no significant effect of spectral purity on choice frequency (rs = 0.224, n=10, p= 0.533; figure 7b). There was no significant correlation effect of chromatic contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0.042, n=10, p= 0.907; figure 7c). There was no significant effect of green receptor contrast on choice frequency (rs = 0. 0.552, n=10, p= 0.098; figure 7d). Effect of wavelength on colour choices Stimuli colours are plotted in figure 8a, as they appear to a human viewer to enable readers to understand the correlation between colour choices. However, all statistical analyses were conducted with stimuli plotted as wavelength due to the different visual perception of bees and humans (Kevan, Chittka et al. 2001). There is a significant effect of wavelength on the number of landings by Trigona carbonaria (Single factor ANOVA, F9,110 = 5.60, P
Wednesday, October 2, 2019
A Hobbesian and Heroic Unreflective Citizenship Essays -- Hobbes Plato
A Hobbesian and Heroic Unreflective Citizenship In Meno, Plato asks â€Å"what virtue itself is†(Plato 60). This dialogue on virtue between Socrates and Meno ably frames a wider dialogue on ethics between Thomas Hobbes, the Greek heroic tradition, and the sophists of 5th century Athens. Hobbes’ Leviathan and Aristophanes’ The Clouds introduce three classes of ethical actors to respond to Plato’s inquiry: Hobbes’ ethical lemmings, the heroic ethical traditionalists, and the sophist ethical opportunists. The Meno also helps capture the essence of contemporary discussion of the morality of desire and emotivism, as articulated by Roberto Mangabeira Unger in Knowledge and Politics and Alasdair MacIntyre in After Virtue. Finally, I will examineâ€â€and then problematize the Hobbesian and heroic responses to ethical subjectivism. SOCRATES: Meno, by the gods, what do you yourself say that virtue is? MENO: †¦There is virtue for every action and every age, for every task of ours and every one of us. (Meno 60-61) Meno helps Plato articulate the implications of subjectivism and the arbitrary designation of value. Roberto Mangabeira Unger’s discussion of the â€Å"morality of desire†(Unger 49) and Alasdair MacIntyre’s description of emotivism formalize the ethical importance of Meno’s inability to disaggregate the self from a definition of virtue. According to Unger, â€Å"[t]he morality of desire defines the good as the satisfaction of desire, the reaching of the goals to which our appetites and aversions incline us. The task of ethics on this view is to teach us how to organize life so that we shall approach contentment†(49). In a similar vein, MacIntyre describes emotivism in After Virtue: â€Å"Emotivism is the doctrine that all evaluative judgme... ...valuation, but can ensure the engagement of informed citizens and offer the choice and contrast between competing paradigms. Plato’s wisdom does not reside in his provision of definitions, but his understanding of the intrinsic good of an autonomous process of thinking, searching, and questioningâ€â€all of which absolute standards ignore. Works Cited Aristophanes. The Clouds. Trans. and foreword by William Arrowsmith. Forrest, W.G. The Emergence of Greek Democracy. Guthrie, W.C. A History of Greek Philosophy. Hobbes. Leviathan. Trans. Herbert W. Schneider. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue. 2nd Ed. University of Notre Dame Press: Notre Dame, Indiana, 1984. MacIntyre, Alasdair. A Short History of Ethics. Plato. Five Dialogues : Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Meno, Phaedo. Trans G. M. A. Grube. Unger, Roberto Mangabeira. Knowledge and Politics.
Tuesday, October 1, 2019
Brooks, Gwendolyn Essay -- Essays Papers
Brooks, Gwendolyn Poet, writer. Born June 7, 1917, in Topeka, Kansas. Throughout most of the twentieth century, Gwendolyn Brooks was a lyrical chronicler of the black urban experience in America. In 1950, she became the first African-American poet to win the Pulitzer Prize. Brooks grew up on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois. She began writing poetry as a young girl, and by the age of 16 had begun publishing her poems regularly in The Chicago Defender. She attended the Woodrow Wilson Junior College in Chicago before marrying a fellow writer, Henry L. Blakely, in 1939. The couple lived together in Chicago, divorcing in 1969 but reuniting in 1973. They had two children, Nora Brooks Blakely and Henry Blakely Jr. Brooks earned a good deal of critical attention in 1945 with the publication of her first anthology of poetry, A Street in Bronzeville. (â€Å"Bronzeville†was Brooks’ name for the predominately African-American South Side of Chicago.) Over the next several years, Brooks won a grant from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and several fellowships from the Guggenheim Foundation. She published her second volume of verse, Annie Allen, in 1949. The book, which followed a Bronzeville girl throughout the stages of her life, was written in a loose, experimental form that Brooks called the â€Å"sonnet-ballad.†Annie Allen won the Pulitzer Prize the following year, catapulting Brooks to a whole new level of literary and popular acclaim. A novel, Maud Martha (1953),...
Creativity and Creative Learning in Young Children
CYPOP4 Promote Young Children’s physical activity and movement skills 1. 1 Physical activity is an essential component in children’s overall health and well being. Unfortunately some children are not as active as they should be to prevent harmful harmful short term and long term effects on their health. * Short term health Physical activity helps children to build muscle, develops the skeletal frame, develops the heart and lung function and also helps prevent obesity. Children who are active are likely to sleep better and longer and are less likely to develop infections such as colds and flu. * Long term healthPhysical activity in young children not only supports health in the short term but can also give children a positive attitude towards sport, playing outdoors and walking. It is important to start when the children are young as when they are older they lose interest in activity. If children are not sufficiently active they are more likely to become overweight or ob ese, this in turn is linked with serious diseases such as type 2 diabetes, heart disease and cancers. For girls, there is also the increased risk of developing osteoporosis later in life if they don’t take physical exercise. * Well beingAs well as providing short and long term benefits, physical activity is also important for children’s overall well being. If physical activity is taken outdoors, children will benefit from fresh air and a feeling of being in a free environment. Children can benefit emotionally and socially as they learn new skills and develop confidence playing with others The current guidelines for physical activity suggest that children should get a minimum of one hour a day. This can be through walking, play or structured activities. 1. 2 In order to achieve the physical skills required a mixture of movement skills need to be acquired in the right order.They include the following; * Hand – eye coordination Many activities require the hand and eye to work together. For example throwing a ball requires the brain to send the correct signal from the eyes to the hands to create the correct movements. * Foot-eye coordination Children have to learn to guide their feet. Kicking a ball or climbing stairs require this type of coordination * Balance Balance is a complicated skill. Although most of us take it for granted, the ability to balance is a skill that develops with age. These skills form and develop as part of the central nervous system in babies and young children.The Central nervous system is responsible for sending out signals from the brain to the rest of our body. Information is constantly collected from our body’s senses. The whole process is surprisingly quick allowing the body to take action against possible dangers. In babies and young children the central nervous system has to develop and mature. At first babies have to rely on the natural reflections they are born with until the central nervous system lear ns how to control their responses. The rate at which babies and children gain control over their bodies varies enormously.There are three key principles that underpin the gaining of this control; 1. Development follows a definite sequence Movements and control develop in a specific sequence which means babies cannot learn to walk before they can sit unsupported 2. Development starts with control of head movements and develops downwards and outwards Babies gain control over their head and top of their spine before the rest of the body. 3. Development starts with uncontrolled gross motor movements before becoming precise and refined Babies gain control over their arms before their hands and fingers.This is important to know before trying to teach a child to write. They will need to start with large letter types before learning to write letters in the correct size and form. We use our physical skills every day. The development of children’s skills gives them independence, over t ime they no longer need our help to feed them or get them dressed or move from one place to the next. This gives them confidence to learn because they are exploring. Children also use their new found skills to play together and play more challenging games. Physical skills also link to other aspects of children’s overall development.These are; * Emotional Development Builds children’s confidence. When they can do things for themselves they are more likely to gain confidence. They can do things how and when they want . They can also use physical skills to express themselves like paint, draw and dance. * Language Development Language develops when there are things to talk about. This is easier when children can do things themselves to explore and see things. It gives them a reason to talk. * Social Development Play with babies is active rather than language based. Children can join in when they have learned and developed their physical skills. Cognitive Development Most o f children’s learning is linked to practical activities. This requires movement skills. There are links between early physical movements and brain development. 2. 3 Natural outdoor environments include, fields, woodland, moors and beaches. For children they are a wonderful playground which change with each visit according to the changes in the weather and the season . Children should have access to these kind of environments so they can learn about nature. These kinds of environments encourage children to learn and practise new skills such as climbing up a tree or over a wall or fence.They may also enjoy running on the sand, making footprints and pictures in it. Natural environments may also be challenging for the children as the terrain will be different. It may be uneven to walk on. There may be pools for them to jump in or avoid and things to jump over. All these encourage confidence and better coordination. 3. 1 Although many children are naturally active it is important to think about creating a range of different opportunities for them to develop their physical skills. Planning their development is important. Observation is key to planning for young children.It needs to be the starting point so we can establish what the children enjoy doing and ensure we are planning opportunities appropriate to their development. Planning appropriately for children involves the following; * Time You need to plan sufficient time for the children’s activities. Some children learn at a slower pace so you need to allow for each individual to get enjoyment from the physical activity, while they are developing their new skills. * Balance of child initiated and adult initiated opportunities It is a requirement of the Early Years Foundation Stage that you allow enough opportunities of each during play activities.It is important as children need time to discover new skills for themselves and play in ways that interest them. * Interest Children need to be motivated in order to practise and develop their skills. It is important to look at what each child is interested in and develop from that so they are encouraged to learn and develop . Play is key for children’s development and learning so planning should be around their interests and how we can incorporate physical activity into this. * Developmentally appropriate Activities should be developmentally appropriate.So when planning you must allow for the fact some children have disabilities and special needs. Ensure you seek the correct guidance and support to enable all children to develop through physical activity. * Range of skills and movement It is important that all physical activities allow children to experience and practice a range of skills and movements. * Planning for non mobile babies Babies who are not yet mobile still need opportunities for physical activities. This might include a baby gym to encourage the baby to move their arms and legs, or grasping and shaking a rattle .Babies also need time lying on their front to encourage muscle development for when they learn to crawl. It is important to place objects where babies can reach and grab so they don’t become frustrated. We should also get on the floor and interact and play with the babies. In addition our plans also need to include actions we do ourselves which help babies enjoy movement. These include rocking, swinging, being held up high and bouncing. All these give babies a different view of the world and aid spatial awareness and rhythm. * Planning for toddlersToddlers enjoy exploring and practising their new found skills. They will need opportunities to walk and climb. Some resources toddlers will require to aid development are; * Books * Shape sorters * Sensory equipment such as water, sand and dough * Rocking horses * Sit and ride toys * Slides * Balls * Pushchairs * Planning for 3-5 year olds Most children this age will have fairly good coordination but they will need help developing their fine motor skills. They will also need varied support with their movement skills, which should be incorporated into their play whenever possible.Some adult led activities can be used to ensure that all children develop and range of movements and skills. Some equipment 3-5 year olds will need are; * Puzzles * Construction toys * Sand and water play * Dressing up and role play toys * Small world play * Climbing frames * Slide * Tricycles and scooters * Balls, hoops and cones * Fabrics * Pushchairs 3. 2 Once you have identified opportunities that will promote physical activity in the children you need to incorporate them into your plan.Your plan must; * Meet the individual movement skills needs of the children * Include activities that promote competence in movement skills * Encourage physical play To ensure these points are covered your plan should be based on observations you have carried out on the children. You may show in your plan, details of equipment, specific adult init iated and child initiated activities. The Early Years Foundation also states you show how each child is planned for. It is also good practice to include the child’s ideas when planning activities. They may have preferences to what activity or equipment they would like to use.You need to watch children carefully when implementing planned activities. Their reactions will let you know whether it is developmentally appropriate for them or not. They will also let you know if they find it interesting and sufficiently challenging for them. You should be ready to change, adapt or even abandon the activity if necessary. Being flexible and ready to change your plan according to the needs and interests of the children is essential. Children can be very creative and they may well change or adapt your planned activity to suit them.Some children are more confident than others and may find movement skills easier or be more confident taking risks. Other children will be hesitant and will nee d encouragement to go that step further. 4. 1 It is important to include physical activity into daily routines in order for children to gain skills and build stamina. Getting children used to physical activity as part of their every day lives will help them later on in life. It is also good practice for their independence. Working with parents so they are keeping the children active at home also helps.Children should also have outdoor play each day so they get used to the outside environment. Sources of physical activity in every day routines are; * Washing and drying up * Sweeping the floor and outdoor area * Pouring their own drinks * Preparing snacks * Walking up and down stairs * Tidying up * Dressing and undressing * Wiping tables * Hanging up coats * Walking to and from the setting In my setting we walk to school and back in the morning and afternoon. The children take off their coats and those that can reach hang them up. They take off their shoes and put them together.We hav e music time each day where the children can play the instruments and dance to the music and we go to the park or visit the local green where there are lots of trees and paths to walk on and there is a woodland area where we look for different animals, insects and birds. 5. 1 It is important for us to be aware of how effective our provision and practice is in supporting children’s physical activity. To be able to assess the effectiveness in your setting you should consider the following; * Observe and assess children’s participation and developmental progress Look at the children and observe them over a number of weeks.Consider how interested they have been in opportunities of physical activity and if they have made progress. * Gain direct feedback from children Children’s reactions can be verbal or non verbal. They may tell us if they have enjoyed an activity or not. Children who cannot speak will let you know with body language and expression. A child who has enjoyed an activity may become excited at seeing a photo of them doing the activity. In my setting I have a photo album which the children can access themselves to look at. I also get it from time to time and we look at the pictures together. Gain feedback from parents, colleagues and others Other people can see more objectively and give their thoughts about our settings and provisions. Parents also experience seeing their children in other situations and may be able to guide us on sufficiently challenging activities. In my setting I have daily chats with parents, I also have a facebook page they can look at and I provide regular parent surveys to get feedback from them. 5. 2 Feedback and information you gain should be used to identify areas for future development.In some settings this may mean altering the physical environment while others may need to change the types of activities and play opportunities. 5. 3 It is important to reflect on your own practice in order to make any imp rovements necessary. Some questions you could ask yourself are; * Do you act as a good role model? * Do you join in physical activities? * Do you observe children’s physical skills regularly? * How aware are you of the children’s expected development? * How do you adapt activities and play opportunities to meet the individual needs oof the children? How do you ensure both boys and girls enjoy physical activity? * How do you plan activities to ensure the children are engaged in a range of movement skills? * How do you ensure that there is sufficient challenge for the children? * How often are children able to play in a natural outdoor environment? Being honest with yourself is key to ensuring you are meeting the children’s developmental requirements. It’s no good thinking you do that or being pretty sure you are good at this. You have to be sure bin order to provide the best for your children.
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